CEng4204-Structural Design

Chapter One

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Lateral Loads on
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Structure
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 Outlines
Introduction
Modelling of wind actions as per ES EN 1991-1-
4:2015
Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-
4:2015

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 Learning outcomes of this chapter
How to use local codes (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015) for
the analysis of lateral loads (Wind load) on the
structures

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4
 Introduction
Classification of loads
Based on area of application:
 Concentrated or Point load,
 Distributed load (uniform and non-uniform)
Based on direction:
 Vertical (Gravity) load,
 Horizontal (Lateral) load
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 Introduction
 Based on response of the structures:

 Static load which do not cause significant acceleration of the

structure or structural members.
 Dynamic load which cause significant acceleration of the structure or
structural member.
 Based on variation with time:

 Permanent (Dead) load which have no freedom of moment with in or

on the structure (fixed actions). E.g. self-weight of the structure
 Variable (Live) load which can occur at arbitrary locations on or
within the structure.
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 Introduction

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 Introduction
Classification of loads as per building codes
 Permanent (Dead) load

 Variable (Live) load

 Environmental loads

 Wind load Rain load

 Earthquake (Seismic) load Earth pressure load
 Snow load

 In this chapter, the static effect of both wind loads and

earthquake loads will be discussed.
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 Introduction
Wind load on structures
Wind is generally naturally air in motion which by
virtue of the mass and velocity possess kinetic
energy.
If an obstacle (e.g. structure) is placed in the path of
the wind, so that the moving air is stopped or
deflected from its path.

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 Introduction
Then, all or part of the kinetic energy of the moving
air is transformed into the obstacle (i.e. the kinetic
energy is converted into potential energy).
This potential energy of the wind is known as wind
pressure or wind load on the structure.
Pressure directed towards the surface is taken as
positive and suction directed away from the surface
as negative.
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 Introduction

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 Introduction
The intensity of wind loads on structure is related
to the square of the wind velocity and dimension of
the member that are resisting the wind (frontal
area).
Wind velocity is dependent on geographical
location, the height of the structure, the
topography of the area and the roughness of the
surrounding terrain.
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 Introduction
Shape of structure
Wind pressure depends on the shape of the
structure that the wind strikes.
Pressure are smallest when the body has a
streamlined cross-section and greater for blunt or
concave cross-section that do not allow the wind to
pass smoothly around.

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 Introduction

Figure: Effect of the building shape on the wind velocity

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 Introduction
Roughness of the surrounding terrain
Friction between the ground surface and the wind
strongly influences the wind velocity.
Near the ground surface, the friction between the air
and ground reduced the wind velocity whereas at
higher elevations above the ground, friction has little
influences and wind velocities are much higher.

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 Introduction

Figure: Effect of roughness of the surrounding terrains

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 Introduction
Height of the structure
Wind velocity increases with the powers of the
structural height because of friction effect on the
ground surface.
Because of this, tall buildings or skyscrapers are
amongst the more wind-sensitive of structures and it
was inevitable that their response to wind would be
of concern to structural engineers.
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 Introduction

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 Introduction
Effects of wind on the structures
Wind induce forces, vibrations and in some cases
instabilities in the overall structure as well as its non-
structural components.
These effect of the wind on the structure depends on
the size, shape, location and vibrational properties of
the structure, mass density of the air and the wind
velocity.
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 Introduction

Figure: Wind load effects on structure

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 Introduction
Response of a structure to the variable action of wind
The response of a structure to the variable action of
wind can be separated in to two components: a
background component and a resonant
component.
The background component involves static
deflection of the structure under the wind pressure.

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 Introduction
The resonant component, on the other hand,
involves dynamic vibration of the structure in
response to changes in wind pressure.
In most structures, the resonant component is
relatively small and structural response to wind
forces is treated using static methods of analysis
alone.

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 Introduction
Methods of wind load analysis on the structures
In most structures, the resonant component
(dynamic) is relatively small and structural response
to wind forces is treated using static methods of
analysis (quasi-static) alone.
However, for tall or otherwise flexible structures, the
resonant component of wind should be calculated
using dynamic methods of analysis.
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 Introduction
The simple quasi-static procedure is only used for
structures whose structural properties do not make
them susceptible to dynamic excitation (dynamic
coefficient).

A detailed dynamic procedure used for those

structures which are likely to be susceptible to
dynamic excitation ().

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 Introduction
The dynamic coefficient takes into account the
reduction effects due to the lack of correlation of
pressures over surfaces as well as the magnification
effects due to the wind turbulence frequency close
to the fundamental frequency of the structure.

Values of for buildings depending on the material

of construction.

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 Figure: values for steel buildings
(Source: Adopted from EBCS 1995)

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Wind
load
Introduction

on
25
 Figure: values for composite (steel/concrete)
buildings (Source: Adopted from EBCS-1995)

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Wind
load
Introduction

on
26
Modelling of wind actions as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Modelling of wind actions as per ES EN 1991-1-

4:2015

Wind actions fluctuate with time and act directly as

pressures on the external surfaces of enclosed
structures and because of openings of the external
surface also act indirectly on the internal surfaces.

Pressures act on areas of the surface resulting in

forces normal to the surface of the structure.
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Modelling of wind actions as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

The wind action is represented by a simplified set

of pressures or forces whose effects are equivalent
to the extreme effects of the turbulent wind.

Unless otherwise specified, wind actions should be

classified as variable fixed actions (see ES EN
1990: 2015 section 4.1.1).

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Modelling of wind actions as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

 The modelling for static actions should normally be

based on an appropriate choice of the force-deformation
relationships of the members and their connections.

 When dynamic actions may be considered as quasi-

static, the dynamic parts are considered either by
including them in the static values or by applying
equivalent dynamic amplification factors to the static
actions.

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Modelling of wind actions as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

As per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 1, quasi-static

method for calculating wind loads on building
structures up to a height of and bridges having no
span greater than .

If the height of building structure is greater than, the

wind-tunnel testing should be performed.

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Modelling of wind actions as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

 The effect of the wind on the structure (i.e. the response of

the structure) depends on the size, shape and dynamic
properties of the structure.

 The response of structures should be calculated according

to ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 5 from the peak velocity
pressure at the reference height in the undisturbed wind
field, the force and pressure coefficients and the
structural factor (see ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 6).

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Modelling of wind actions as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015
 The wind actions calculated using ES EN 1991-1-4:2015
are characteristic values (see ES EN 1990:2015 section
4.1.2).

 They are determined from the basic values of wind velocity

or the velocity pressure.

 In accordance with ES EN 1990: section 4.1.2 (7) the basic

values are characteristic values having annual probabilities
of exceedance of which is equivalent to a mean return
period of years.
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Modelling of wind actions as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

The characteristic value of the wind loading

should be multiplied with appropriate partial safety
factors to arrive at the design values of the wind
load.

Furthermore, the combinations of loads to be taken

into account should be specified (see ES EN
1990:2015).

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-

4:2015 section 5.2

The wind pressure acting on the external surfaces,

should be obtained from expression:

Where:

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

is the peak velocity pressure (see ES EN 1991-1-

4:2015 section 4.5)

is the reference height for the external pressure given

in ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 7

is the pressure coefficient for the external pressure

(see ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 7).

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015
 The wind pressure acting on the internal surfaces of a structure,

should be obtained from expression:

Where: is the peak velocity pressure (see ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section

4.5)

is the reference height for the internal pressure given in ES EN 1991-1-

4:2015 section 7

is the pressure coefficient for the internal pressure (see ES EN 1991-1-

4:2015 section 7).

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

The net pressure on a wall, roof or element is the

difference between the pressures on the opposite
surfaces taking due account of their signs.

Pressure directed towards the surface is taken as

positive and

Suction directed away from the surface as negative.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Figure: Pressure on surfaces (Source: Adopted from ES

EN 1991-1-4:2015)

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

 The net wind force acting on a structure or a

structural component may be determined directly by
using expression:

Where: is the structural factor as defined in ES EN

1991-1-4:2015 section 6

is the reference area of the structure or structural element

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Structural factor (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 6)

The structural factor should take into account the

effect on wind actions from the non-simultaneous
occurrence of peak wind pressures on the surface
together with the effect of the vibrations of the
structure due to turbulence.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Determination of (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 6.2)

 For buildings with a height less than , the value of may

be taken as.
 For facade and roof elements having a natural
frequency greater than, the value of may be taken as.
 For framed buildings which have structural walls and
which are less than high and whose height is less than
4 times the in-wind depth, the value of may be taken as.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Peak velocity pressure (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

section 4.5)

depends on the wind climate, the terrain roughness

and orography and the reference height.

The peak velocity pressure at height which includes

mean and short-term velocity fluctuations should be
determined.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Where:

 is the air density which depends on the altitude,

temperature and barometric pressure to be expected
in the region during wind storms.
 The values for may be given in the National
Annex. The recommended value is.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

is the turbulence intensity at height see ES EN 1991-

1-4:2015 section 4.4

is the exposure factor given by:

is the basic velocity pressure given by:

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

 For flat terrain where orographic factor the

exposure factor is given by:

 The exposure factor is given in the graphical form

as a function of height above terrain and a function
of terrain category as shown in Figure (see next
slide).

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Figure : Illustrations of the exposure factor for (Source: Adopted from ES

EN 1991-1-4:2015)

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Basic wind velocity (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.2)

 The basic wind velocity shall be calculated from

expression:

Where: is the basic wind velocity defined as a function

of wind direction and time of year at above ground of
terrain category II

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

is the directional factor

is the season factor

is the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity

 The fundamental value of the basic wind velocity is the

characteristic 10 minutes mean wind velocity irrespective of
wind direction and time of year at above ground level in
open country terrain with low vegetation such as grass and
isolated obstacles with separations of at least 20 obstacle
heights.
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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

 The value of the basic wind velocity may be given

in the National Annex. The recommended value is.

 The value of the directional factorfor various wind

directions may be found in the National Annex. The
recommended value is.

 The value of the season factormay be given in the

National Annex. The recommended value is.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Mean wind velocity (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section

4.3)

The mean wind velocity at a height z above the

terrain depends on the terrain roughness and
orography and on the basic wind velocity and
should be determined using expression:

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Where:

is the roughness factor given in ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

section 4.3.2

is the orography factor taken as unless otherwise

specified in (see ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 4.3.3)

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Terrain roughness as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

section 4.3.2

The terrain roughness factor accounts for the

variability of the mean wind velocity at the site of
the structure due to the height above ground level
and the ground roughness of the terrain upwind of
the structure in the wind direction considered.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

The recommended procedure for the determination

of the roughness factor at height is given by the
following expression and is based on a logarithmic
velocity profile.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015
Where: is the roughness length

is the minimum height defined in Table 4.1 of ES EN 1991-1-

4:2015

is to be taken as unless otherwise specified in the National

Annex

Terrain factor depending on the roughness length calculated

using

(Terrain category II, From Table 4.1 of ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015
Terrain category

Minimum height
Table 4.1

Roughness
Terrain description

length
0 Sea or coastal area exposed to the open sea
I Lakes or flat and horizontal area with negligible vegetation and
without obstacles
II Area with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles
(trees, buildings) with separations of at least 20 obstacle height
III Area with regular cover of vegetation or buildings or with isolated
obstacles with separations of maximum 20 obstacle heights (such
as villages, suburban terrain, permanent forest)
IV Area in which at least of the surface is covered with buildings
and their average height exceeds
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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015
Transition between roughness categories 0, I, II, III and IV (ES
EN 1991-1-4:2015 Annex A.2)

 If the structure is situated near a change of terrain roughness at a

distance less than from the smoother terrain category 0 and less
than from the smoother terrain categories I to III, the smoother
terrain category in the upwind direction should be used.

 When there is choice between two or more terrain categories in

the definition of a given area, then the area with the lowest
roughness length should be used.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Terrain orography as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

section 4.3.3

 Where orography (e.g. hills, cliffs, escarpments) (not

undulating and mountainous regions) increases wind
velocities by more than, the effects should be taken
into account using the orography factor.

 The effects of orography may be neglected when the

average slope of the upwind terrain is less than.
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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

At isolated hills and ridges or cliffs and

escarpments, different wind velocities occur
dependent on the upstream slope in the wind
direction where the height and the length

The upwind terrain may be considered up to a

distance of 10 times the height of the isolated
orographic feature.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

i t ie s
e loc
d
v EN
win ES
o f om
e f r
as
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pted
i do
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t i on r c e:
u st ra ( Sou
: Il l hy
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F o r 1 5)
ov
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- 4: 20
9 1 -1
19

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

 is related to the wind velocity at the base of the hill

or escarpment.

is the upwind slope in the wind direction

is the effective length of the upwind slope (Table A.2)

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

is the actual length of the upwind slope in the wind

direction

is the actual length of the downwind slope in the wind

direction

is the effective height of the feature

is the horizontal distance of the site from the top of the

crest

is the vertical distance from the ground level of the site

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

 is the orographic location factor to be obtained

from Figure below.

Figure : Factor for cliffs and escarpments

(Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Figure: Factor for hills and ridges (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Table A.2: Values of the effective length (Source:

Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

Type of slope
Shallow Steep

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Wind turbulence as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

section 4.4

The recommended rules for the determination of

are given in expression:

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Where:

is the turbulence factor. The value of may be given in

the National Annex. The recommended value is.

is the orography factor as described in ES EN 1991-1-

4:2015 section 4.3.3

is the roughness length given in Table 4.1 of ES EN

1991-1-4:2015

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Reference height as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section

7.2.2

Reference height for Vertical walls of rectangular

plan buildings

The reference height for walls of rectangular plan

buildings (zone D windward) depends on the aspect
ratio and are always the upper heights of the different
parts of the walls.
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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

 They are given for the following three cases:

 Case 1: A building whose height is less than should

be considered to be one part .

 Case 2: A building whose height is greater than but

less than may be considered to be two parts
comprising: a lower part extending upwards from the
ground by a height equal to and an upper part
consisting of the remainder .
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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015
 Case 3: A building, whose its height greater than may be
considered to be in multiple parts comprising: a lower part
extending upwards from the ground by a height equal to ; an
upper part extending downwards from the top by a height
equal to and a middle region between the upper and lower
parts which may be divided into horizontal strips with a
height with a maximum value of as desired.

Note: With the reference height in each case calculated as the

distance from the ground to the top of the part.
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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Case 1:

Case 2:

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015
g ht a n d e
i ur S
he s s
d p re E
n ce an rom
e y f
fer o cit ted
Re on vel op
A d
: g
u re ing din ce: 15)
g d n r
Fi pen spo Sou 4:20
de rre le ( -1-
co ofi 991
pr N 1
E
Case 3:

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

The rules for the velocity pressure distribution for

leeward wall (zone E) and side walls (zones A, B,
C) may be given in the National Annex or be
defined for the individual project.

The recommended procedure is to take the reference

height as the height of the building .

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Reference height for roofs

For roofs, the reference height is often taken as

ridge height h.

𝒁𝒆

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Pressure coefficients for buildings

External pressure coefficient for vertical walls as per

ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 7.2.2

 The external pressure coefficients for buildings and

parts of buildings depend on the size of the loaded
area which is the area of the structure that produces
the wind action in the section to be calculated.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

The external pressure coefficients are given for the

various zones (zone A, B, C, D and E) of the
vertical walls of a rectangular building for loaded
areas of and for the appropriate building
configurations as for local coefficients and for
overall coefficients respectively.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

𝒆= 𝑳𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒃
𝟐𝒉 {

Case
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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

𝒆= 𝑳𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒃
𝟐𝒉 {

Case

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Figure: Key for vertical walls (Source: Adopted from ES EN

1991-1-4:2015)
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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Table 7.1: Recommended values of external pressure

coefficients for vertical walls of rectangular plan
buildings (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-
4:2015)

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

 In cases where the wind force on building structures

is determined by application of the pressure
coefficients on windward (zone D) and leeward side
(zone E) of the building simultaneously, the lack of
correlation of wind pressures between the windward
and leeward side (a maximum at windward side does
not occur at the same instance as the maximum on
leeward side) may have to be taken into account.
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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

 The lack of correlation of wind pressures between the

windward and leeward side may be considered as
follows.

 For buildings with the resulting force is multiplied by.

 For buildings with, the resulting force is multiplied by.

 For intermediate values of, linear interpolation may be

applied.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

For

For

For

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

External pressure coefficient for roofs

i. Flat roofs (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section 7.2.3)

 Flat roofs are defined as a roof having a slope of.

 The reference height for flat roof and roofs with

curved or mansard eaves should be taken as.

 The reference height for flat roofs with parapets

should be taken as .
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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Figure: Reference height for flat roofs (Source: Adopted from ES EN

1991-1-1:2015)

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

The roof should be divided into zones as shown in

Figure below and pressure coefficients for each
zone are given in Table 7.2 of ES EN 1991-1-

fs
4:2015.

5) rom roo
ES
: 2 d at
- 4 t e fl
01 f
- 1 op or
91 Ad f
19 ce: Key
EN our e:
(S gur
Fi
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 Table 7.2-External pressure coefficients for flat
roofs (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-
4:2015)

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015
Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

i. Monopitch roofs (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section

7.2.4)

 Monopitch roofs are defined as a roof having a slope.

 The reference height should be taken equal to.

 The roof including protruding parts should be divided

into zones and the pressure coefficients for each zone
that should be used are given in Table 7.3 of ES EN
1991-1-4:2015.
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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Figure : Key for monopitch roofs (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

iii. Duopitch roofs (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section

7.2.5)

The reference height should be taken equal to.

The roof including protruding parts should be divided

into zones as shown in Figure (see next slide) and the
pressure coefficients for each zone that should be
used are given in Table 7.4 of ES EN 1991-1-4:2015.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Figure : Key for duopitch roofs (Source: Adopted

from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015
iv. Hipped roofs (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section
7.2.6)

The reference height should be taken equal to.

The roof including protruding parts should be

divided into zones as shown in Figure (see next
slide) and the pressure coefficients for each zone
that should be used are given in Table 7.5 of ES EN
1991-1-4:2015.
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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Figure: Key for hipped roofs (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

v. Multi-span roofs (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015 section

7.2.7)

Pressure coefficients for wind directions and for

each span of a multi-span roof may be derived from
the pressure coefficient for each individual span.

The reference height should be taken equal to.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015
 Modifying factors for the pressures (local and global) for wind
directions and on each span should be derived:

 From monopitch roofs, modified for their position according to

Figure a and b (see next slide).

 From duopitch roofs for α < 0, modified for their position according
to Figure c and d (see next slide).

 The zones F/G/J used should be considered only for the upwind
face.

 The zones H and I should be considered for each span of the multi-
span roof.
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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Internal pressure coefficient as per ES EN 1991-1-

4:2015 section 7.2.9

The design of roofing, cladding and internal walls

requires that the internal pressures inside buildings
are known.

Internal pressure arises due to opening such as

windows, doors and vents in the cladding.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

If the windward panel has a greater proportion of

opening than the leeward panel, then the interior of
the structure is subjected to positive (outwards)
pressure.

Conversely, if leeward face has more opening, then

the interior of the structure is subjected to negative
(in ward) pressure.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

 The calculation of the internal pressures in ES EN

1991-1-4 depends on the fact whether a building has
dominant faces (i.e. non-uniformly distributed
openings) or not (i.e. uniformly distributed openings).

 A face of a building should be regarded as dominant

when the area of openings at that face is at least
twice the area of openings and leakages in the
remaining faces of the building considered.
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 Figure: Internal pressure coefficients for uniformly distributed
openings (Source: Adopted from ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015
Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

The opening ratio should be

determined from expression:

Where it is not possible to estimate µ

for a particular case, then should be
taken as the more onerous of and.
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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

For buildings with a dominant face (i.e. non-

uniformly distributed openings), the internal
pressure should be taken as a fraction of the
external pressure at the openings of the dominant
face.

When the area of the openings at the dominant

face is twice the area of the openings in the
remaining faces, .
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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

When the area of the openings at the dominant

face is at least 3 times the area of the openings in
the remaining faces, .
When the area of the openings at the dominant
face is between 2 and 3 times the area of the
openings in the remaining faces, linear
interpolation for calculating may be used.

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

Reference height for the internal pressure

 The reference height for the internal pressures

should be equal to the reference height for the

external pressures on the faces which contribute by

their openings to the creation of the internal pressure.

 If there are several openings, the largest value of

should be used to determine.

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 Quiz (5%)
1) Suppose that Adama city administration wants to construct building

around Bole sub-city. The surrounding terrain category is flat and

horizontal area with negligible vegetation and without obstacles.

Now, you are appointed to be involved in the design of this building

from ASTU. Considering yourself as structural designer, how you

can model and analysis wind load on this building?

2) How the building shapes wind pressure on structure? Which the

building shape more advantageous in case to reduce wind pressure?

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Wind pressure on surfaces as per ES EN 1991-1-4:2015

T- 1
A R
E P
T H
O F
N D
E
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