ELECTRONICS -II

Subject Code : ME/T31

(TH-60,MT-30,CA-10)
Unit -II, Module –1
Converters
 CONVERTERS: Introduction
 Processing signal using digital systems have many
advantages.
 So Digital systems are widely used for control,
communication, computers, Instrumentation etc.
 In many such applications, the signals are not available in
digital form.
 So that analog signals should be converted in to digital
form( A to D converter/ A/D converter or ADC)
 The digital signals are processed & then they are again
converted in to analog form for application
(D to A converter/ D/A converter or DAC)
 CONVERTERS: NEED

 In the real world, most data is characterized by

analog signals. In order to manipulate the data
using a microprocessor, we need to convert the
analog signals to the digital signals, so that the
microprocessor will be able to read, understand and
manipulate the data.

e.g. music players, sound recording, temperature

sensors
CONVERTERS: NEED
 What is a DAC?
 A digital to analog converter (DAC) converts a
digital signal to an analog voltage or current
output.

100101… DAC
DAC
 DAC: Digital To Analog Converter
 2 Methods
1) Weighted Resistor D/A Converter
2) R-2R Ladder D/A Converter
Weighted Resistor D/A Converter

LSB MSB
 Weighted Resistor D/A Converter

 Each bit signal is connected with weighted resistor.

 The MSB input is connected with lowest resistor.
Towards LSB The resistance value is made twice of
previous resistor.
So minimum current will pass through the LSB resistance &
maximum current will pass through the MSB resistance.
 Also called as variable resistor network.
 Dia. Shows the Summing amplifier with 4 digital inputs
B0,B1,B2, B3 with B3 As MSB with weighted resistor R & B0
as LSB with weighted resistor 8R.
 Weighted Resistor D/A Converter

Summing Amplifier

In this circuit

Let us take range of voltage from 0 V to 4 V i.e.

0 = 0V
1 = 4V & find analog output for different combination of inputs.

When input is B3B2B1B0 = 0000 then Vo = 0

Weighted Resistor D/A Converter
 Weighted Resistor D/A Converter

Advantages
1) Simple Construction/Analysis
2) Fast Conversion
Drawbacks:
1) It requires wide range of resistors about R to (2 n-1 x R)
for n bit & each resistor has different value.
2) It is difficult to fabricate such a wide range of resistors
with integrated circuit technique.
3) Since the MSB bit has lowest value of R, it has to
handle very large current if input size is too big.
 R-2R Ladder D/A Converter

1 0 1 0 1 0
 R-2R Ladder D/A Converter

It is a resistive network & contains resistors of

only two values R & 2R.
Inputs to the resistor network are applied
through digitally controlled switches
Op-Amp as a scaling circuit.
MSB input towards right & LSB input towards
left of the circuit.
 R-2R Ladder D/A Converter

Analog output of Op-Amp for various digital inputs

1)Suppose digital input is B2B1B0 =100
then equivalent circuit becomes

Vin 2R
Vin

2R

+V +V
 R-2R Ladder D/A Converter

For general n-Bit R-2R Ladder or Binary Weighted Resister DAC

n
1
Vout  Vref  bn i i
i 1 2
 R-2R Ladder D/A Converter

Analog input to Op-Amp for various digital inputs

1)Suppose digital input is B2B1B0 =100 & Vref=10 V.
Then
n
1
Vout  Vref  bn i
i 1 2i

Vout=-10(b2/2 + b1/4 + b0/8)

=-10 (1/2 + 0/4 + 0/8)
=-5 V
 R-2R Ladder D/A Converter

For a 3-Bit R-2R Ladder

 Vref Vref Vref 

Vout   R b2  b1  b0 
 2R 4R 8R 

 1 1 1
Vout  Vref  b2  b1  b0 
 2 4 8
 R-2R Ladder D/A Converter

Advantages
Only two resistor values (R and 2R)
Does not require high precision resistors

Disadvantage
Lower conversion speed than binary
weighted DAC
 What is a ADC?
 A analog to digital converter (ADC) converts a
analog voltage or current to digital output.

100101…
ADC
What is a ADC?
 ADC: Analog To Digital Conversion

2-Step Process
Quantizing – Whole range of analog voltage is
represented suitably in 2N intervals. (N-bit A/D
Converter)

Encoding – Each interval is then assigned a unique

N-Bit binary code this process is called encoding.
ADC: Analog To Digital Conversion
 ADC: Analog To Digital Conversion

Quantizing
4V

3V

2V

1V
0V
-1 V
-2 V

-3 V

-4 V
 Step 1: Quantizing
Encoding

Voltage Output Digital O/p

Example: Ranges (V) States
0.00-1.25 0 000
You have 0-10V signals.
Separate them into a 1.26-2.50 1 001
set of discrete states 2.51-3.75 2 010
with 1.25V increments. 3.76-5.00 3 011
(How did we get 1.25V?
5.01-6.25 4 100
See next slide…)
6.26-7.50 5 101
7.51-8.75 6 110
8.76-10.0 7 111
 Quantizing

The number of possible states that the

converter can output is:
N=2n
where n is the number of bits in the A/D converter

Example: For a 3 bit A/D converter, N=23=8.

Analog quantization size:

Q=(Vmax-Vmin)/N = (10V – 0V)/8 = 1.25V
 Encoding

Output Output Binary Equivalent

 Digital value (binary States
number) is assigned 0 000
to each state.
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
 Accuracy of A/D Conversion
There are two ways to best improve accuracy of A/D
conversion:
 Increasing the resolution which improves the

accuracy in measuring the amplitude of the analog

signal.
In our previous example: Q = 1.25V, this is a high
resolution. A lower resolution would be if we used a 2-bit
converter, then the resolution would be 10/2^2 = 2.50V.
 Increasing the sampling rate which increases the
maximum frequency that can be measured.
 Accuracy of A/D Conversion
 Increasing both the sampling rate and the resolution
you can obtain better accuracy in your AD signals.
 A/D Converter Types

1) Parallel comparator A/D converter OR

Simultaneous A/D Converter
2) Successive Approximation type A/D
Converter
3) Counter type/Counting A/D Converter
 Parallel comparator A/D converter
OR Simultaneous A/D Converter OR
Flash ADC

The circuit consists of

Series of comparators: they compare the

input signal(Analog Signal) to a reference

voltage as shown in dia.
The comparator outputs are given to priority

encoder circuit, which produces a binary

output
 How Flash Works?
 As the analog input voltage exceeds the
reference voltage at each comparator,
the comparator outputs will sequentially
saturate to a high state.
 The priority encoder generates a binary
number.
 =8V 2N-1 Comparators needed

Vin

Vr7=7 V
C7

Vr6=6 V
C6

Vr5=5 V
C5

Vr4=4 V
C4

Vr3=3 V
C3

Vr2=2 V
C2

Vr1=1 V
C1
If Vref> Vin o/p= 0
 How Flash Works?

Voltage Input Logic output C

Vref<Vin C=1
Vref>Vin C=0
Vref=Vin Previous Value
 Comparator O/P & Digital O/P

Analog I/P Vin C7 C6 C5 C4 C3 C2 C1 Y2 Y1 Y0

0<Vin<Vr1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Vr1<Vin<Vr2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Vr2<Vin<Vr3 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
Vr3<Vin<Vr4 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
Vr4<Vin<Vr5 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
Vr5<Vin<Vr6 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
Vr6<Vin<Vr7 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
Vr7<Vin<Vref 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 Flash

Advantages Disadvantages
 Simplest in terms of  Lower resolution
operational theory  Expensive
 For each additional
 Most efficient in terms
output bit, the number
of speed, very fast
of comparators is
doubled
 limited only in terms i.e. for 8 bits, 256
of comparator and gate
comparators needed
propagation delays
 Successive Approximation ADC

 Circuit consists of

1) Successive approximation Register

(SAR)- Heart of the circuit
2) 8 bit D/A converter

3) Comparator(OP-Amp)
Successive Approximation ADC
 Successive Approximation ADC

1/8 1/4 1/2

?????
 Successive Approximation ADC

½+1/4+1/8 Kg 111

?????
½+1/4 Kg 110

½+1/8 Kg 101

½ Kg 100

¼+1/8 Kg 011

010

1/8 Kg
1/4 Kg 001

000
Successive Approximation ADC

½(O.5) ¼(0.25) 1/8(0.125)

1 0 0
1 1 0
0 1 0
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 1
0 0 0
Successive Approximation ADC
Circuit

Digital
Display Unit

+
 Successive Approximation ADC
WORKING

1) Input analog signal which is to be

converted in to digital is given to non-
inverting i/p of Op-Amp.
2) SAR is RESET by holding a START(S)
signal High.
3) On the first clock pulse The MSB of
SAR is SET(1). So the o/p of SAR is
100.
 Successive Approximation ADC
WORKING

4) The O/p of SAR is given to D/A converter

which converts 100 in to analog equivalent
signal which is the given to Inverting I/p of
Op-Amp.
5) Op-Amp acts like a comparator and
compares the 2 Analog I/p signals &
generate O/p accordingly
 Successive Approximation ADC
WORKING

 If D/A O/p >Vin Then the comparator O/p is

low(0) then MSB of SAR will reset (0)
 If D/A O/p <Vin Then the comparator O/p is
High(1) then MSB of SAR will remain set (1).
6) In above both cases the next bit of MSB will
SET(1) for next clock pulse.
7) So O/p of SAR will be 010 in first case or 110 in
second case.
8) Again the same process repeat.
 Successive Approximation ADC
WORKING

 SAR will either SET or RESET bits & this

continues until the SAR tries all the bits &
binary equivalent of the analog voltage is
obtained.
 This binary O/p can be given to digital
display unit for displaying digital O/p
 Successive Approximation ADC
WORKING

For N-bit converter , N no. of clock

pulses will be required hence slower
than flash ADC but faster than
counter type A/D converters.
Application
Digital Voltmeter
 Successive Approximation
Advantages Disadvantages

 Capable of high speed and  Higher resolution

reliable successive approximation
 Medium accuracy ADC’s will be slower
compared to other ADC
types
 Good tradeoff between
speed and cost
 Capable of outputting the
binary number in serial
(one bit at a time) format.
 Counter Type A/D
converter

 Circuit consists of

1) Up Counter
2) D/A converter

3) Comparator(OP-Amp)
Counter Type A/D
converter

UP
Counter
Digital
Display Unit

+
 Counter Type A/D converter
Working
1) Input analog signal which is to be converted
in to digital is given to non-inverting i/p of
Op-Amp.
2) Counter is RESET by using a clear pulse.
(000)
3) The O/p of counter is given to D/A converter
which converts 000 in to analog equivalent
signal which is the given to Inverting I/p of
Op-Amp.
 Counter Type A/D converter

4) Op-Amp acts like a comparator and

compares the 2 Analog I/p signals &
generate O/p accordingly.
 If D/A O/p<Vin Then the comparator
O/p is High(1).
 If D/A O/p>Vin Then the comparator
O/p is LOW(0).
 Counter Type A/D converter

 O/p of comparator is 1 of the i/p to the AND gate.

Other i/p to AND gate is CLOCK pulse.
 If Vo=1 then only clock pulse is applied to the counter,
Counter increments & again the same process repeat.
 The counter increment till it becomes equal to an
unknown analog voltage.
 When Vo=0, the AND gate gets disabled & the
counting stops. The o/p of counter is Binary equivalent
of analog i/p signal.
ADC Types Comparison

Type Speed (relative) Cost

(relative)
Flash Very Fast High
Successive Medium – Fast Low
Appox N clock pulses are
required for N bit ADC
Counter Type Slow as Low
2N clock pulses are
required for N bit ADC