MET 413

ADVANCED NDT
JISHNOOP JAYAPRAKASH
Assistant Professor
ASET
Radiation attenuation in specimens
• When radiations passes through the specimen, it gets
attenuated an reduces in intensity.
• Absorption is based on
• Photoelectric effect
• Rayleigh Scattering
• Compton scattering
• Pair production
Structure of X- ray Tube
Photoelectric effect
Rayleigh Scattering
Compton effect
Pair production
X ray Film
• X-ray films for general radiography consist of an emulsion-gelatin
containing radiation sensitive silver halide crystals, such as silver bromide or
silver chloride, and a flexible, transparent, blue-tinted base.
• The emulsion is different from those used in other types of photography
films to account for the distinct characteristics of gamma rays and x-rays, but
X-ray films are sensitive to light.
• Usually, the emulsion is coated on both sides of the base in layers about
0.0005 inch thick.
• Putting emulsion on both sides of the base doubles the amount of radiation-
sensitive silver halide, and thus increases the film speed.
• The emulsion layers are thin enough so developing, fixing, and drying can be
accomplished in a reasonable time.
• A few of the films used for radiography only have emulsion on one side
which produces the greatest detail in the image.
Inspection Techniques
• Single Wall Singe Image Technique
• Source outside Film inside
• Source inside Film outside
• Double Wall Penetration Technique
• Double wall single image
• Double wall double image
• Double wall Superimposing technique
• Latitude technique
• Special technique
• Multiwall single image
• Multiwall double image
Single Wall Singe Image Technique
Single wall single image (SWSI)
• Used when both the sides are accessible.
• Used for plates, cylinders, large diameter pipes.
• The source is kept outside and film inside or vice-versa.
• In panoramic technique, the source is kept in the centre of the pipe and
film is fixed around the weld in the outside.
• Total circumferential length is exposed at the same time.
• This technique can only be used when the source to film distance is
sufficient enough to ensure proper sensitivity.
Double wall inspection
DWSI : The radiation source is kept on the pipe or very near to the OD
so that the source side weld does not fall on the film.
• Used in pipes with dia more than 90mm.
• IQI is placed on the film side.
• Only film side weld can be interpreted.
DWDI: Suitable for smaller dia pipes ( OD less than 90mm)
• The source is kept at a distance (SFD) with an offset from the axis of
the weld, to avoid superimposing of the source and film side welds to
get an elliptical image on the film.
• IQI is placed on the source side.
• Both the film and source side welds can be interpreted from the image.
• This requires minimum 2 exposures to cover the weld.
Superimposing technique:
• This technique is used whenever the required offset to obtain the
double image is not possible with pipes of dia upto 90mm.
• The source is kept at SFD without offset thereby superimposing
source side weld on film side weld.
• IQI is placed on source side.
• Requires min 3 exposures of 1200 apart to cover the weld.
Double film technique
Multi wall single image
Multiwall Double image inspection
Real time radiography
• X-ray and gamma rays are used here as well.
• The major difference is in viewing the image.
• In film radiography, the image is viewed in a static mode. Here, first radiation
is passed through the object, the image is recorded, then it is viewed.
• In real-time radiography, the image is interpreted generally at the same time
as the radiation passes through the object, i.e., dynamic mode.
• Basic equipment consists of
• A source of radiation
• A fluoroscopic conversion screen
• Mirrors
• A viewing port.
Working
• To get the basic real-time image, an object is placed between the
source of radiation and a fluoroscopic screen that converts the
transmitted radiation to visible light.
• A specially coated mirror then reflects the visible image to a viewing
port that lets the interpreter view the object.
• Because low light levels are produced during conventional direct-
viewing fluoroscopy, a device called image intensifier is used to
provide brightness of 100 or more times the intensity of the
fluoroscopic screen.
Image intensifier
• The image intensifier is a large glass enclosed electron tube.
• The function of the image intensifier is to convert radiation to light, light to electron
for intensification and electron back to light for viewing.
• To make the conversions, the tube contains an input phosphor, a photocathode,
accelerating and focusing electrodes, and a final output phosphor.
• Like the Fluoroscopic screen, the input phosphor converts the radiation passing
through the object to a light image.
• Photocathodes emit electrons when excited by the input phosphor light
• Conversion is necessary because waves in the electromagnetic spectrum cannot be
accelerated whereas electrons can be.
• The acceleration of the electrons produces a brighter image when they are converted
back to light by the output phosphor
Advantages and limitations
• Real time radiography has the advantages of high speed and low cost
of inspection.
• Fluoroscopic units have the disadvantage of lower sensitivity due to
higher unsharpness of the screens.
• The use of microfocal units along with image intensifying system
greatly enhances the versatility and sensitivity of the real-time
radiographic setup.
• The inherent unsharpness of the fluorescent screens would be
compensated by the focal spot size (<100 um) of the microfocal units
Micro focal Radiography
• In conventional radiography, the unit of focal spot ranges from 1-
5mm.
• In order to maintain sharpness the film is placed in close contact with
the object and stand off distance is increased upto a particular limit.
Advantages and limitations of Microfocal
radiography
• Projection magnification :
The object need not be in contact with the film during exposures as in
conventional radiography. Thus one can obtain enlarged primary radiography
with magnification greater than 2X. Magnification reduces the no of features
that is masked by background image noise thus enhancing sensitivity.

• Improved radiographic contrast:

Once the object is placed away from the film, the amount of scattered radiation
reaching it is drastically reduced.

• Possibility of object manipulation

Neutron radiography
• It is identical in principle to conventional radiography but
complementary with the nature of information obtained.
• Neutron radiography extends the ability to image the internal
structures of a specimen beyond what x-rays or gammas can produce.
• Similarities include the ability to produce a visual records of changes
in density, thickness and composition of the material.
Principle
• This technique uses the penetrating ability of the neutron radiations
and differential absorption by the material to obtain the internal
structures of the specimen.
• The object is placed in a collimating neutron beam.
• Neutrons while passing through the object are differentially absorbed.
• Absorption depends upon the atomic number, thickness of material,
homogeneity and composition.
• The geometric pattern of transmitted neutron intensity is recorded
using a suitable detector and visualised.
Neutron Imaging
• Neutron source –
• Nuclear reactors, particle accelerators, radioisotopes.
• Moderator and collimator –
• Termal neutrons are used in neutron radiography
• The average energy of the high energy neutrons are moderated to
thermal range using moderators like water or hydrogeneous materials.
• For getting a useful beam of neutrons, the neutrons are extracted from
the reactor core by inserting a tube ( collimator ) into the moderator.
• Divergent type of collimator is used to produce a beam which can be
projected over a large area of inspection.
• High L/D Ratio is more preferred
Detection
• Neutrons does not have an effect on conventional films used for
radiography as it is non ionising.
• The detection systems for neutrons consist of a image recorder in close
contact with a thin sheet of material(metallic foils) which absorbs
neutrons and emit corresponding electromagnetic radiations which can
be absorbed by the recording sheet.
• The detection process is classified as direct and indirect just like X-ray
radiography
• The difference in absorption coefficient b/w x-rays and neutrons
suggest a no.of possible application for neutron radiography like-

• Examination of dense materials like uranium and lead, etc.

• Detection of light materials enveloped in denser materials
• Differentiating b/w isotopes of same elements
• Examination of radioactive materials which are sensitive to gamma
rays.
Flash radiography
Flash radiography is a method for recording radiographic pictures of a
non-transparent high-speed phenomenon.
Such events occur in a variety of fields: Ballistics, dynamic high
pressure physics, detonics, industry, and medical diagnostics.
The phenomena observed by flash-radiography generally move at
velocities between 100 m/s and 10000 m/s.
The motion blur recorded on the picture is negligible only if the
duration t of the x-ray pulse (or the exposure time) falls in the range 10
8 -10 7s .
Working
• Instead of several separate X-ray tubes one multi-anode 450 kV tube is
utilized. In the multi-anode tube eight anodes are arranged on a circle
of ≈12 cm diameter.
• This configuration causes only a relatively small parallax for the
projections from the different anodes.
• The process under observation can be X-rayed at eight different times.
• The radiation transmitted through the target is then detected on a
fluorescent screen.
• The position of the target is between the multi-anode tube and the
fluorescent screen, relatively close to the fluorescent screen.
• The fluorescent screen converts the radiograph into an image in the
visible wavelength range, which is photographed by means of an
intensified digital high-speed camera.
• The maximum frame rate that can be achieved with such a system
depends on the decay time of the fluorescent screen, the time
characteristics of the intensifier and the camera.
• Frame rates of 200,000 fps have been achieved with a fast decaying
fluorescent screen and have been used in this study.