Chapter Introduction

Lesson 1 Earthquakes
Lesson 2 Volcanoes
Chapter Wrap-Up
What causes
earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions?
What do you think?
Before you begin, decide if you agree or
disagree with each of these statements.
As you view this presentation, see if you
change your mind about any of the
statements.
Do you agree or disagree?
1. Earth’s crust is broken into rigid slabs
of rock that move, causing
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
2. Earthquakes cause energy waves that
travel through Earth.
3. Earthquakes can be predicted.
Do you agree or disagree?
4. Volcanoes can erupt anywhere on
Earth.
5. Volcanic eruptions are rare.
6. Volcanic eruptions only affect people
and places located close to the
volcano.
Earthquakes

• What is an earthquake?
• Where do earthquakes occur?
• How do scientists monitor earthquake
activity?
Earthquakes
• primary wave
• earthquake • secondary wave
• fault • surface wave
• seismic wave • seismologist
• focus • seismometer
• epicenter • seismogram
What are earthquakes?
• Earthquakes are the vibrations in the
ground that result from movement along
breaks in Earth’s lithosphere, called
faults.
• The forces that move tectonic plates also
push and pull on rocks along the fault.
• The greater the force applied to a fault,
the greater the chance of a large and
destructive earthquake.
What are earthquakes? (cont.)

What is an earthquake?
Where do earthquakes occur?
Records show that most earthquakes
occur in the oceans and along the edges
of continents.
Where do earthquakes occur? (cont.)
• Earthquakes result from the buildup
and release of stress along active plate
boundaries.
• The deepest earthquakes occur where
plates collide along a convergent plate
boundary.
• Here, the denser oceanic plate
subducts into the mantle.
Where do earthquakes occur? (cont.)

mantle
Science Use the area in Earth’s
interior below the crust and above
the core
Common Use something that
covers, enfolds, or envelops like a
hood
Where do earthquakes occur? (cont.)
Shallow earthquakes are common where
plates separate along a divergent plate
boundary.

Where do most earthquakes

occur?
Where do earthquakes occur? (cont.)
• Rock deformation can result in ground
displacement.
• A fault is a break in Earth’s lithosphere
where one block of rock moves toward,
away from, or past another.
• When rocks move in any direction
along a fault, an earthquake occurs.
Types of Faults
Where do earthquakes occur? (cont.)
• When rocks move along a fault, they
release energy that travels as
vibrations on and in Earth called
seismic waves.
• These waves originate where rocks
first move along the fault, at a location
inside Earth called the focus.
The epicenter is
the location on
Earth’s surface
directly above
the earthquake’s
focus.
Seismic Waves
• Scientists use wave motion, wave
speed, and the type of material that the
waves travel through to classify
seismic waves.
• The three types of seismic waves are
primary waves, secondary waves, and
surface waves.
Seismic Waves (cont.)
Primary waves, also called P-waves,
cause particles in the ground to move in a
push-pull motion similar to a coiled spring.

primary
from Latin primus, means “first”
Seismic Waves (cont.)
• Secondary waves, also called S-waves,
cause particles to move at right angles
relative to the direction the wave travels.
• Surface waves cause particles in the
ground to move up and down in a rolling
motion.
Mapping Earth’s Interior
• Scientists that study earthquakes are
called seismologists.
• They use the properties of seismic
waves to map Earth’s interior.
P-waves and S-waves at different depths
within Earth’s interior travel at different
speeds.
Mapping Earth’s Interior (cont.)
• An instrument called a seismometer
measures and records ground motion
and the distance and direction that
seismic waves travel.
• Ground motion is recorded as a
seismogram, a graphical illustration of
earthquake waves.
Seismologists use a method called
triangulation to locate an earthquake’s
epicenter.
Determining Earthquake Magnitude
• Scientists can use three different scales
to measure and describe earthquakes.
• The Richter magnitude scale uses the
amount of ground motion at a given
distance from an earthquake to
determine magnitude.
• The moment magnitude scale measures
the total amount of energy released by
the earthquake.
The Modified
Mercalli scale
measures
earthquake
intensity based on
descriptions of the
earthquake’s
effects on people
and structures.
Determining Earthquake Magnitude
(cont.)

• Probability is one of several factors

that contribute to earthquake risk
assessment.
• Seismologists also study past earthquake
activity, the geology around a fault, the
population density, and the building
design in an area to evaluate risk.
Areas that experienced earthquakes in
the past will likely experience
earthquakes again.
Determining Earthquake Magnitude
(cont.)

How do seismologists
evaluate risk?
• The focus is
the area on a
fault where an
earthquake
begins.
• Earthquakes occur along plate
boundaries.
• Seismologists assess earthquake risk
by studying past earthquake activity
and local geology.
Which term refers to the location
on Earth’s surface directly above
an earthquake’s focus?
A. fault
B. seismic wave
C. epicenter
D. seismogram
Which of these uses the amount of
ground motion at a given distance
from an earthquake to determine
magnitude?
A. the Richter magnitude scale
B. the moment magnitude scale
C. the Modified Mercalli scale
D. seismogram
Which of these cause particles to
move at right angles relative to
the direction the wave travels?
A. primary waves
B. secondary waves
C. surface waves
D. epicenter
Do you agree or disagree?

1. Earth’s crust is broken into rigid slabs

of rock that move, causing earthquakes
and volcanic eruptions.
2. Earthquakes cause energy waves that
travel through Earth.
3. Earthquakes can be predicted.
Volcanoes

• How do volcanoes form?

• What factors contribute to the eruption
style of a volcano?
• How are volcanoes classified?
Volcanoes

• volcano • composite volcano

• magma • cinder cone
• lava • volcanic ash
• hotspot • viscosity
• shield volcano
What is a volcano?
• A volcano is a vent in Earth’s crust
through which melted—or molten—
rock flows.
• This molten rock is called magma.
How do volcanoes form?
• The movement of Earth’s tectonic
plates causes the formation of
volcanoes and the eruptions that result.
• Volcanoes can form along convergent
plate boundaries.
When two
plates collide,
the denser
plate sinks, or
subducts, into
the mantle.
How do volcanoes form? (cont.)
• Magma that erupts onto Earth’s
surface is called lava.
• Lava erupts along divergent plate
boundaries.
As plates separate, magma rises through
the vent or opening in Earth’s crust that
forms between
them.
How do volcanoes form? (cont.)
• Volcanoes that are not associated with
plate boundaries are called hotspots.
• Geologists hypothesize that hotspots
originate above a plume—a rising
convection current deep within Earth’s
mantle.
Over time, a chain
of volcanoes form
as a tectonic plate
moves. The oldest
volcano will be
farthest away from
the hotspot. The
youngest volcano
will be directly
above the hotspot.
How do volcanoes form? (cont.)

How do volcanoes form?

Where do volcanoes form?
• The Ring of Fire represents an area of
earthquake and volcanic activity that
surrounds the Pacific Ocean.
• By comparing the locations of active
volcanoes and plate boundaries, you
can see that volcanoes are mostly
along convergent plate boundaries
where plates collide.
The world’s active volcanoes are along
convergent and divergent plate
boundaries and hotspots.
Where do volcanoes form? (cont.)
• The United States Geological Survey
(USGS) has established three volcano
observatories to monitor the potential for
future volcanic eruptions in the United
States.
• Because large populations of people live
near volcanoes such as Mount Rainier in
Washington, the USGS has developed a
hazard assessment program.
Types of Volcanoes
• Volcanoes are classified based on their
shape and size.
• Shield volcanoes are common along
divergent plate boundaries
and oceanic hotspots.
• Shield volcanoes
are large with
gentle slopes of
basaltic lavas.
Types of Volcanoes (cont.)
Composite volcanoes are large,
steep-sided volcanoes that result from
explosive eruptions of andesitic and
rhyolitic lava along
convergent plate
boundaries.
Types of Volcanoes (cont.)
Cinder cones are small, steep-sided
volcanoes that erupt gas-rich, basaltic
lavas.
Types of Volcanoes (cont.)

What determines the shape

of a volcano?
Volcanic Eruptions
• When magma surfaces, it might erupt
as a lava flow or erupt explosively,
sending volcanic ash high into the
atmosphere.
• Volcanic ash is tiny particles of
pulverized volcanic rock and glass.
• Magma chemistry determines a
volcano’s eruptive style.
Volcanic Eruptions (cont.)
• Silica is the main chemical compound
in all magmas.
• Differences in the amount of silica
affect magma thickness and its
viscosity—a liquid’s ability to flow.
Volcanic Eruptions (cont.)

What factors affect eruption

style?
Volcanic Eruptions (cont.)
• All magmas contain dissolved gases
such as water vapor and small
amounts of carbon dioxide and sulfur
dioxide.
• When gases escape above ground, the
lava, ash, or volcanic glass that cools
and crystallizes has holes.
Volcanic Eruptions (cont.)
• The effects of lava flows, ash fall,
pyroclastic flows, and mudflows can
affect all life on Earth.
• Although lava flows tend to be slow
moving, they threaten communities
nearby.
• Volcanic ash can affect air quality and
can cause serious breathing problems.
Volcanic Eruptions (cont.)
• The thermal energy a volcano
produces during an eruption can melt
snow and ice, creating meltwater that
mixes with mud and ash on the
mountain, forming mudflows.
• Explosive volcanoes can produce fast-
moving avalanches of hot gas, ash,
and rock called pyroclastic flows.
Volcanic Eruptions (cont.)
• Unlike earthquakes, volcanic eruptions
can be predicted.
• Geologists study changes in the
shapes of volcanoes, volcanic gas
emissions, and satellite and aerial
photographs to assess volcanic
hazards.
Volcanic Eruptions and Climate
Change
• Volcanic eruptions affect climate when
volcanic ash in the atmosphere blocks
sunlight.
• The average global temperature
decreases as less sunlight reaches
Earth’s surface.
The 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption caused
temperatures to decrease by almost one
degree Celsius in one year.
Volcanic Eruptions and Climate
Change (cont.)

How do volcanoes affect

climate?
• Volcanoes form when magma rises
through cracks in the crust and
erupts from vents
on Earth’s
surface.
• Magma with low
amounts of silica
and low viscosity
erupt to form
shield volcanoes.
• Magma with high
amounts of silica
and high viscosity
erupts explosively
to form composite
cones.
What is the term to describe
volcanoes not associated with
plate boundaries?
A. cinder cones
B. shield volcanoes
C. hotspots
D. composite volcanoes
Which of these refers to tiny
particles of pulverized volcanic
rock and glass?
A. magma
B. lava
C. silica
D. volcanic ash
Which of these is a fast-moving
avalanche of hot gas, ash, and
rock?
A. pyroclastic flow
B. volcanic ash
C. lava flow
D. ash flow
Do you agree or disagree?

4. Volcanoes can erupt anywhere on

Earth.
5. Volcanic eruptions are rare.
6. Volcanic eruptions only affect people
and places located close to the
volcano.
Key Concept Summary
Interactive Concept Map
Chapter Review
Standardized Test Practice
Most earthquakes
occur along plate
boundaries where
plates slide past each
other, collide, or
separate. Volcanoes
form at subduction
zones, mid-ocean
ridges, and hot
spots.
Lesson 1: Earthquakes
• Earthquakes commonly
occur on or near
tectonic plate
boundaries.
• Earthquakes are
used to study the
composition and structure of Earth’s interior and to
identify the location of active faults.
• Earthquakes are monitored using seismometers and
described using the Richter magnitude scale, the
moment magnitude scale, and the Modified Mercalli
scale.
Lesson 2: Volcanoes
• Molten magma is forced
upward through cracks
in the crust, erupting
from volcanoes.
• The eruption style, size,
and shape of a volcano
depends on the
composition of the
magma, including the amount of dissolved gas.
• Volcanoes are classified as cinder cones, shield
volcanoes, and composite cones.
Which of these is a break in Earth’s
lithosphere where one block of rock
moves toward, away from, or past
another?
A. seismic wave
B. focus
C. epicenter
D. fault
Where do seismic waves
originate?

A. epicenter
B. hotspots
C. focus
D. ocean
Earthquakes result from the
buildup and release of stress
along which of these?
A. P-waves
B. plate boundaries
C. seismic waves
D. epicenters
What is the main chemical
compound in all magmas?

A. ash
B. lava
C. silica
D. sulfur dioxide
Which of these is magma that has
erupted onto Earth’s surface?

A. ash
B. lava
C. volcanic ash
D. silica
Which term refers to the
vibrations in the ground that
result from movement along
breaks in Earth’s lithosphere?
A. fault
B. earthquake
C. pyroclastic flow
D. epicenter
Which of these measures
earthquake intensity based on
descriptions of the earthquake’s
effects on people and structures?
A. seismometer
B. the Richter magnitude scale
C. the Modified Mercalli scale
D. the moment magnitude scale
Which term is used to describe a
liquid’s ability to flow?

A. eruptive style
B. ash fall
C. viscosity
D. pyroclastic flows
When meltwater from a volcanic
eruption mixes with mud and ash,
which of the following forms?
A. mudflows
B. ash fall
C. lava flows
D. pyroclastic flows
Which of these describes small,
steep-sided volcanoes that erupt
gas-rich, basaltic lavas?
A. cinder cones
B. composite volcanoes
C. shield volcanoes
D. pyroclastic flows