CSS112-Fundamentals of Computing

II.BCOM ‘A’

S. 1
 UNIT – III 12 Periods
Interaction of User and Computer: Types of Software - System Software - Application Software. Operating System:
Objectives of OS - Types of OS - Functions of OS - Process Management - Memory Management - File Management - Device
Management - Protection and Security - User Interface - Examples of OS.
Programming Fundamentals: Program Development Life Cycle – Algorithm - Control Structures - Flow Chart - Pseudo
Code - Programming Paradigms.

UNIT – IV 12 Periods
The Internet and Internet Services: History of Internet – Internet working Protocol - the Internet Architecture - Managing
the Internet - Connecting the Internet - Internet Connections -Internet Address - Internet Services - Uses of Internet.
Information Systems: Data - Information and Knowledge - Characteristics of Information -Information System - Computer
Based Information System (CBIS) - Need for Efficient Information System - Categories of Information System - Operations
Support System -Management Support System - Specialized Information System.

UNIT – V 12 Periods
Multimedia: Definition - Characteristics of Multimedia System - Elements of Multimedia - Multimedia System - Multimedia
Applications. Computer Security: Security Threat and Security Attack - Malicious Software - Security Mechanisms – Firewall -
User Identification and Authentication - Other Security Measures - Security Awareness - Security Policy.

TEXT BOOK
Anita Goel, “Computer Fundamentals”; 1/e, ISBN 9788131733097, Pearson Education,
2010.
REFERENCE
1. ITL Education Solutions Ltd., 3
“IntroductiSoS. nHEtKI oMCOoHImDEpENuSteHArHSA/ cPi/eCnSEc/eSR”C;S/ PAeSTaRrAson Education, 2006.
 Course Code: CSS112 / COURSE NAME:FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTING
Semester: 3

Course Objective: 4 0 0 4

This course will help the learner to classify different hardware and software components, recognize their working
principles. It also helps the learner to explain the software development life cycle, Internet and multimedia services.

UNIT – I 12 Periods
Introduction to Computer: Introduction - Digital and Analog Computers - Characteristics of Computer - History of
Computer - Generations of Computer – Classification - the Computer System - Application. The Computer System
Hardware: Introduction – CPU - Memory Unit - Instruction Format - Instruction Set - Instruction Cycle – Microprocessor -
Interconnecting the Units - Performance of a computer - Inside a Computer.
Computer Memory: Introduction - Memory Representation - Memory Hierarchy - CPU Registers - Cache Memory -
Primary Memory - Secondary Memory - Access Types of Storage Devices - Magnetic Tape - Magnetic Disk - Optical Disk -
Magneto-Optical Disk - Using the computer memory.

UNIT – II 12 Periods
Input and Output Devices: Introduction - Input-Output Unit - Input Devices - Human Data Entry Devices - Source Data
Entry Devices - Output Devices .Data Representation: Introduction - Number System - Conversion from Decimal to Binary,
Octal, Hexadecimal - Conversion of Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal to Decimal - Conversion of Binary to Octal, Hexadecimal -
Conversion of Octal, Hexadecimal to Binary - Binary Arithmetic - Signed and Unsigned Numbers - Binary Data Representation
- Binary Coding Schemes.
3
 COMPUTER-FULL FORM

C-Commonly
O-Operated
M-Machine
P-Particularly
U-Used for
T-Technology
E-Education and
R-Research

S.SHEIK MOHIDEEN SHAH/AP/CSE/SRC/SASTRA 4

 COMPUTER

The term computer is derived from the word compute.

The word compute means to calculate.

Computer is an electronic machine that accepts data from the user,

processes the data by performing calculations and operations on
it, and generates the desired output results.

Computer performs both simple and complex operations, with

speed and accuracy.
5
Analog and Digital Computers

6
 Analog and Digital Computers
• Analog computer represents data as variable across a continuous range of
values.

• The earliest computers were analog computers.

• Analog computers are used for measuring of parameters that vary

continuously in real time, such as temperature, pressure and voltage.

• Slide rule is an example of an analog computer.

7
Analog Computer-Slide Rule

8
 Analog and Digital Computers
• A digital computer uses distinct values to represent the data internally.

• All information are represented using the digits Os and 1s.

• The computers that we use at our homes and offices are digital computers.

9
 Characteristics of
Computer
• Speed

• accuracy

• diligence

• storage capability

• versatility
S.SHEIK MOHIDEEN SHAH/AP/CSE/SRC/SASTRA 10
 Characteristics of
Speed: Computer
• Computer can process data very fast.
• At the rate of millions of instructions per second.
• Some calculations would have taken hours and days to complete.
• Those calculations can be completed in few seconds.

Accuracy:
• Computer provides a high degree of accuracy.
• Computer can accurately give the result of division of any two numbers up
to 10 decimal places
11
 Characteristics of Computer
Diligence
• Meaning for Diligence is-> computer when used for long time does not get
tired and fatigue.
• It can perform long and complex calculations with the same speed and
accuracy till end.
Storage Capability
• Large volumes of data and information can be stored in computer.
• Data can be retrieved whenever required.
• Primary storage-> Little amount of data stored temporarily.(RAM).
• Secondary storage->
Large amount of data stored Permanently.(CD, Floppy Disk).
12
 Characteristics of Computer

Versatility
• Computer is versatile in nature.

• It can perform different types of tasks with the same ease.

• At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter document and
in the next moment you may play music or print a document.

13
 History of Computers
Calculating Machines
• ABACUS was the first mechanical calculating device for counting of large
numbers.
• The word ABACUS means calculating board.
• It consists of bars in horizontal positions on which sets of beads are
inserted.
ABACUS SLIDE RULEs

14
 History of Computers
Napier’s Bones
•A mechanical device built for the purpose of multiplication in 1617
ad. by an English mathematician John Napier.

Slide Rule
•Developed by an English mathematician Edmund Gunter in the 16th
century.
• Operations performed using Slide Rule-> like addition, subtraction,
• multiplication and division.
• It was used extensively till late 1970s.
15
 History of Computers
• Pascal’s Adding and Subtraction Machine
• Developed by Blaise Pascal.
• It could add and subtract.
• The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.

Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Machine

• Mechanical device that could both multiply and divide.
• German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built it around 1673.

16
 History of Computers
• Punch Card System was developed by Jacquard to control the power loom
in 1801.
• He invented the punched card reader that could recognize the presence of
hole in the punched card as binary one and the absence of the hole as
binary zero.
• The Os and 1s are the basis of the modern digital computer.

17
 History of computers
• Babbage’s Analytical Engine
• An English man Charles Babbage built a mechanical machine to do
complex mathematical calculations, in the year 1823.
• The machine was called as difference engine.
• Later, Charles Babbage and Lady Ada Lovelace developed a
general-purpose calculating machine, the analytical engine.
• Charles Babbage is also called the father of computer.

Hollerith’s Punched Card Tabulating Machine

• Machine invented by Herman Hollerith.
• The machine could read the information from a punched card and process it
electronically. 18
 Generations of Computer
First Generation Third Generation(Integrated circuits)
(Vaccum tubes)

Second Generation Fourth Generation(Microprocessors)

(Transistors)

Fifth Generation
(Artificial
Intelligence) 19
 Generations of Computer
Generation Hardware Software Computing Physical Application Examples
Technology Technology characteristics appearance

FIRST Used vacuum Instructions Computation Enormous in They were UNIVAC (

(1940-56) tubes. through time in size and the fastest Universal
Vacuum machine millisecond requires large device of Automatic
Tubes Magnetic drum for language. room for their time. Computer).
memory. installation.

First generation
Input through could solve one ENIVAC
punched cards and problem at a (Electronic
paper tapes. time. Numeric
Integrator and
Output through Machine Calculator).
printouts language uses 0
and 1 for coding
of instructions. EDVAC
(Electronic
Discrete Variable
Automatic
Computer).

20
 Generations of Computer
Generation Hardware Software Computing Physical Application Examples
Technology Technology characteristics appearance
SECOND Transistors replaced Instructions Computation Transistors are The cost of PDP-8, IBM
(1956-63) vacuum tubes. written using time in smaller in production was 1401 and CDC
Transisto Assembly millisecond size very high, 1604
rs Transistors faster Language. compared to though less than
cheaper energy vacuum tubes. the first
efficient and reliable. Assembly Thus, the generation
Languages uses size of the computers.
Magnetic core
mnemonics computer was
technology for
primary storage. like ADD,SUB also reduced. Transistors had
for Addition to be assembled
Magnetic disks and and subtraction manually in
magnetic tapes for second
secondary storage. generation
computers.
Input->Punched
cards
Output-> Printouts.
Concept of Stored
program for
instructions 21
Generation Hardware Software Computing Physical Application Examples

y Generations
Technolog
Computer of Technolog
y
characteristi
c s
appearanc
e

THIRD The third generation Keyboard and Computation size of these Computers IBM 370, PDP 11
monitor time was in
interfaced nanoseconds
(1964-71) computers used the through
. computers became
Integrated Integrated Circuit (IC) operating was quite accessible to
system.
Circuits Chips. small mass audience.
O.S allow compared to
In an I C chip multiple different second Computers were
applications to
transistors are placed run at same generation produced
on a silicon chip. time. computers. commercially,
and were smaller
High level
IC increases speed language replace and cheaper
and efficiency of Machine and than their
computer. Assembly predecessors.
Languages.
Interaction->
Punched cards and
printouts are
replaced by keyboard
and monitor 22
 Generations of Computers
Generation Hardware Software Computing Physical Application Examples
Technology Technology characteristic appearance
s
OURTH Thousands of Several The They are They became The Intel 4004 chip
1971 to transistors operating computatio smaller than widely was the first
resent) integrated on a systems like n time is in the computers available for microprocessor.
Using small chip using MS-DOS and MS picosecond of the previous commercial
Microproce Large Scale Windows were s generation. purposes. In 1981, IBM
sor Integration, Very developed. Some can even introduced the first
Large Scale fit into the Personal computer for home
Integration GUI- Graphical palm of the computers use.
Technology. user interface hand became
that allows users available to In 1984, Apple
Microprocessors to interact with the home introduced the
are designed using computer using user. Macintosh.
LSI and VLSI. Menus and Icons.

This generation give

rises to PC. Programs
written using
Linking of computer High level
is another Languages.
 Fifth Generation
• The fifth generation computers use Super Large Scale Integrated (SLSI)
chips that are able to store millions of components on a single chip.

• This generation of computers uses parallel processing that allows several

instructions to be executed in parallel, instead of serial execution.

• The fifth generation computers are based on Artificial Intelligence (AI).

They try to simulate the human way of thinking and reasoning.

• Artificial Intelligence includes areas like Expert System (ES),

Natural Language Processing (NLP), speech recognition, voice
recognition, robotics, etc.
24
CLASSIFICATION OF
COMPUTER

25
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER
Micro Computers:
• Microcomputers are small, low-cost and Single-user digital computer.

• They consist of CPU, input unit, output unit, storage unit and the software.

• Though microcomputers are stand-alone machines.

• They can be connected together to create a network of computers that can

serve more than one user.

• IBM PC based on Pentium microprocessor and Apple Macintosh are some

examples of microcomputers 26
Micro Computers Examples

S.SHEIK MOHIDEEN SHAH/AP/CSE/SRC/SASTRA 27

 Micro Computers
Examples
Desktop Computer or Personal Computer (PC)
• Most common type of microcomputer.

• It is a stand-alone machine that can be placed on the desk.

• Externally, it consists of three units—keyboard, monitor, and a system unit

containing the CPU, memory, hard disk drive.

• It is not very expensive.

• Suited to the needs of a single user at home, small business units, and
organizations.
• Microrosoft, Apple HP, Dell
S. SHE IK M OH ID EEN SH A H/A P/ CS E/SR C/S AS TRA
L e n o v o a r e s o m e o f the PC manufacturers.
28
 Micro Computers Examples
Notebook Computers or Laptop-> It resemble a notebook.
• They are portable and have all the features of a desktop computer.

The advantage of the laptop :

• Small in size (can be put inside a briefcase).

• It can be carried anywhere, has a battery backup and has all the functionality of the
desktop.

• Laptops can be placed on the lap while working (hence the name).

• Laptops are costlier than the desktop machines. 29

 Micro Computers Examples
Netbook
• These are smaller notebooks optimized for low weight and low cost.

• Designed for accessing web-based applications.

• Starting with the earliest netbook in late 2007, they have gained significant
popularity now.

• Netbooks deliver popular activities like streaming videos or music, emailing, Web
surfing or instant messaging.

• The word netbook was created as a blend of Internet and notebook. 30

 Micro Computers Examples
Tablet Computer
• It has the features of notebook computer.
• But it can accept input from a stylus or a pen instead of the keyboard or mouse.
• It is a portable computer. Tablet computer are the new kind of PCs.

Handheld Computer or Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)

• It is a small computer that can be held on the top of the palm.
• It is small in size.
• Instead of the keyboard, PDA uses a pen or a stylus for input.
• PDAs do not have a disk drive.
• They have a limited memory and are less powerful.
• PDAs can be connected to the SI.SnHEtIKeMrOnHIeDEtENvSHiAaH/AaP/CwSE/iSrRCe/SlAeSTsRAs 31
 Micro Computers Examples
• Casio and Apple are some of the manufacturers of PDA. Over the last few
years, PDAs have merged into mobile phones to create smart phones.
Smart Phones
• Cellular phones that function both as a phone and as a small PC.

• They may use a stylus or a pen, or may have a small keyboard.

• They can be connected to the Internet wirelessly.

• They are used to access the electronic-mail, download music, play games, etc.

• Manufacturers of smartphones: Blackberry, Apple, HTC, Nokia and LG

32
 Mini Computers
Minicomputers:
• Minicomputers are digital computers, generally used in multi-user systems.
• They have high processing speed and high storage capacity than the
microcomputers.
• Minicomputers can support 4–200 users simultaneously.
• The users can access the minicomputer through their PCs or
terminal.
• They are used for real-time applications in industries, research
centers, etc.
• PDP 11, IBM (8000 series) are some of the widely used
minicomputers.

33
 Mainframe Computers
• Mainframe computers are multi-user, multi-programming and high performance
computers.

• They operate at a very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can handle
the workload of many users.

• Mainframe computers are large and powerful systems generally used in centralized
databases.

• The user accesses the mainframe computer via a terminal that may be a dumb
terminal, an intelligent terminal or a PC.
34
 Mainframe Computers
• A dumb terminal cannot store data or do processing of its own.

• It has the input and output device only.

• An intelligent terminal has the input and output device, can do processing, but, cannot
store data of its own.

• The dumb and the intelligent terminal use the processing power and the storage
facility of the mainframe computer.

• Mainframe computers are used in organizations like banks or companies.

35
Mainframe Computers

36
 Super Computers
• Supercomputers are the fastest and the most expensive machines.

• They have high processing speed compared to other computers.

• The speed of a supercomputer is generally measured in FLOPS (FLoating point

Operations Per Second).

• Some of the faster supercomputers can perform trillions of calculations per

second.

• Supercomputers are built by interconnecting thousands of processors that can work in

parallel.
37
 Super Computers
Super computers are used for:

• Highly calculation-intensive tasks, such as, weather forecasting, climate

research (global warming).

• Molecular research.

• Biological research, nuclear research and aircraft design.

• They are also used in major universities, military agencies and scientific research
laboratories.

38
 Super Computers in SASTRA

• Our Supercomputer - HP rp8400

39
 Super Computers in SASTRA

• Our Supercomputer - HP rp8400

Peak
17 GFLOP/s
Performance
Processors 16 PA-8700 @750 MHz
Architecture SMP with 4 cell boards
Memory 8 GB (2 GB per cell board)
360 GB (Expandable up to 1
Disk
TB)

40
Super Computers Example

41
 Super Computers Example

• Some examples of supercomputers are IBM Roadrunner, IBM Blue gene and
Intel ASCI red.

• PARAM is a series of supercomputer assembled in India by C-DAC (Center for

Development of Advanced Computing), in Pune.

• PARAM Padma is the latest machine in this series.

• The peak computing power of PARAM Padma is 1 Tera FLOP (TFLOP).

42
 Super Computers Example

Computer performance
Name Unit Value
kiloFLOPS kFLOPS 103
megaFLOPS MFLOPS 106
gigaFLOPS GFLOPS 109
teraFLOPS TFLOPS 1012
petaFLOPS
exaFLOPS PFLOPS 1015

zettaFLOPS 1018
yotta EFLOPS
1021
FLOPS
ZFLOPS 1024
43
 Super Computers-FLOPS

• In computing, floating point operations per second (FLOPS, flops

or flop/s)
• It is a measure of computer performance, useful in fields of scientific
computations that require floating-point calculations.
• For such cases it is a more accurate measure than measuring
instructions per second.

44
THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

45
 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

The computer system consists of four parts:

(1) Hardware.

(2) Software.

(3) Data.

(4) Users.

46
 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM
Hardware:
• Mechanical parts that make up the computer as a machine.
• Hardware consists of physical devices of the computer.
•These devices are required for input, output, storage and processing of the data.
Examples of Hardware devices
• Keyboard.
• Monitor.
• hard disk drive.
• floppy disk drive.
• Printer.
• processor and motherboard.
47
 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM
Software
• Software is a set of instructions that tells the computer about the tasks to be
performed and how these tasks are to be performed.

Program -> Is a set of instructions, written in a language understood by the

computer, to perform a specific task.
• A set of programs and documents are collectively called software.

• The hardware of the computer system cannot perform any task on its own.

• The hardware needs to be instructed about the task to be performed.

• Software instruct the computer about the task to be performed
48
 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM
DATA
• Data are isolated values or raw facts, which by themselves have no much
significance.

• For example, the data like 29, January, and 1994 just represent values.

• The data is provided as input to the computer, which is processed to generate

some meaningful information.

• For example, 29,January and 1994 are processed by the computer to give the
date of birth of a person.

49
 THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

USERS
• Users are people who write computer programs or interact with the computer.
• They are also known as skin ware, live ware, human ware or people ware.
• Programmers
• data entry operators,
• system analyst
• computer hardware engineers fall into this category.

50
 THE INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT CONCEPT
A computer is an electronic device that
(1) accepts data,
(2) processes data,
(3) generates output,
(4) stores data.

51
 THE INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT CONCEPT
Input
• The computer accepts input data from the user via an input device like keyboard.
• The input data can be characters, word, text, sound, images, document, etc.
Process
• The computer processes the input data.
• For this, it performs some actions on the data by using the instructions or program
given by the user of the data.
• The action could be an arithmetic or logic calculation, editing, modifying a
document, etc.
• During processing, the data, instructions and the output are stored temporarily
in the computer’s main memory.

52
 THE INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT CONCEPT
Output
• The output is the result generated after the processing of data.
• The output may be in the form of text, sound, image, document, etc.
• The computer may display the output on a monitor, send output to
the printer for printing, play the output, etc.
Storage
• The input data, instructions and output are stored permanently in
the secondary
storage devices like disk or tape.
• The stored data can be retrieved later, whenever needed.

53
 Components of Computer Hardware
The computer system hardware comprises of three main components
1. Input/output (I/O) Unit,
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU), and
3. Memory Unit.

54
 Components of Computer Hardware
Input/output Unit
• The user interacts with the computer via the I/O unit.
• The Input unit accepts data from the user and the Output unit provides the
processed data i.e. the information to the user.
• The Input unit converts the data that it accepts from the user, into a form that is
understandable by the computer.
• Similarly, the Output unit provides the output in a form that is understandable
by the user.
• The input is provided to the computer using input devices like keyboard,
trackball and mouse.
• Some of the commonly used output devices are monitor and printer.
55
 Components of Computer Hardware
Central Processing Unit
• CPU controls, coordinates and supervises the operations of the computer.
• It is responsible for processing of the input data.
• CPU consists of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).
• ALU performs all the arithmetic and logic operations on the input data.
• CU controls the overall operations of the computer.
• It checks the sequence of execution of instructions, and, controls and
coordinates the overall functioning of the units of computer.
• Additionally, CPU also has a set of registers for temporary storage of data,
instructions, addresses and intermediate results of calculation.

56
 Components of Computer Hardware
Memory Unit
• Memory unit stores the data, instructions, intermediate results and output,
temporarily, during the processing of data.

• This memory is also called the main memory or primary memory of the
computer.

• The input data that is to be processed is brought into the main memory before
processing.

• The instructions required for processing of data and any intermediate results are
also stored in the main memory.
57
 Components of Computer Hardware
• The output is stored in memory before being transferred to the output device.

• CPU can work with the information stored in the main memory.

• Another kind of storage unit is also referred to as the secondary memory of the
computer.
•
• The data, the programs and the output are stored permanently in the storage
unit of the computer.

• Magnetic disks, optical disks and magnetic tapes are examples of secondary
memory 58
 APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS
• Education.
• Entertainment.
• Sports.
• Advertising.
• Medicine.
• Science and Engineering.
• Government.
• Home.

59
COMPUTER SYSTEM HARDWARE

60
 COMPUTER SYSTEM HARDWARE
• Central Processing Unit (CPU) or the processor is also often called the brain
of computer.

• CPU also has a set of registers which are temporary storage areas for holding
data, and instructions.

• ALU performs the arithmetic and logic operations on the data that is made
available to it.
• CU is responsible for organizing the processing of data and instructions.

• CU controls and coordinates the activity of the other units of computer. CPU uses
the registers to store the data,

61
 COMPUTER SYSTEM HARDWARE
• CPU executes the stored program instructions, i.e. instructions and data are stored
in memory before execution.

• For processing, CPU gets data and instructions from the memory.

• It interprets the program instructions and performs the arithmetic and logic
operations required for the processing of data.

• Then, it sends the processed data or result to the memory.

• CPU also acts as an administrator and is responsible for supervising operations of

other parts of the computer.
62
 COMPUTER SYSTEM HARDWARE

• The CPU is fabricated as a single Integrated Circuit (IC) chip, and is also known as
the microprocessor.

• The microprocessor is plugged into the motherboard of the computer.

• (Motherboard is a circuit board that has electronic circuit etched on it and connects
the microprocessor with the other hardware components).

63
 COMPUTER SYSTEM HARDWARE
Arithmetic Logic Unit:
• ALU consists of two units—arithmetic unit and logic unit.

• The arithmetic unit performs arithmetic operations on the data that is made
available to it.

• Arithmetic operations are— addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

• The logic unit of ALU is responsible for performing logic operations.

• Logic operations include testing for greater than, less than or equal to condition.

• ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations, and uses registers to hold the data
that is being processed.
64
 COMPUTER SYSTEM HARDWARE
Registers

65
 COMPUTER SYSTEM HARDWARE
Registers
• Accumulator (ACC) stores the result of arithmetic and logic operations.

• Instruction Register (IR) contains the current instruction most recently fetched.

• Program Counter (PC) contains the address of next instruction to be processed.

• Memory Address Register (MAR) contains the address of next location in the
• memory to be accessed.

• Memory Buffer Register (MBR) temporarily stores data from memory or the data
• to be sent to memory.

• Data Register (DR) stores the operands and any other data.
66
 COMPUTER SYSTEM HARDWARE

• Registers are often referred to as the CPU’s working memory.

• Registers store data, instructions, addresses and intermediate results of processing.

• Registers are high-speed storage areas ,but have the least storage capacity.

• Registers are not referenced by their address.

67
 COMPUTER SYSTEM HARDWARE

• Registers are directly accessed and manipulated by the CPU during instruction
execution.

• The number of registers and the size of each (number of bits) register in a CPU
helps to determine the power and the speed of a CPU.

• The size of register, also called word size, indicates the amount of data with which
the computer can work at any given time.

• The size of a register may be 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits.

68
 CONTROL UNIT
• The control unit of a computer does not do any actual processing of data.

• It organizes the processing of data and instructions, acts as a supervisor, controls

and coordinates the activity of the other units of computer.

• CU coordinates the input and output devices of a computer.

• Directs the computer to carry out stored program instructions by communicating

with ALU and the registers.

• CU uses the instructions in the Instruction Register (IR) to decide which circuit
needs to be activated.
69
 CONTROL UNIT
• It also instructs the ALU to perform the arithmetic or logic operations.

• While executing program the Program Counter (PC) register keeps track of the
program instruction to be executed next.

• CU tells when to fetch the data and instructions, what to do, where to store the
results, the sequencing of events during processing etc.

• CU also holds the CPU’s Instruction Set, which is a list of all operations that the
CPU can perform.

70
MEMORY UNIT

71
 MEMORY UNIT
The memory unit consists
1. Primary Memory (or) Main Memory.
2. Secondary Memory.
3. Cache Memory.

Primary Memory:
• Primary memory or main memory of the computer is used to store the data and
instructions during execution of the instructions.

• Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM) are the primary
memory.
72
 MEMORY UNIT
Primary Memory:
• Primary memory is the main memory of computer. It is used to store data and
instructions during the processing of data.

• Primary memory is semiconductor memory.

Two kinds of Primary memory->

• Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).

• RAM is volatile.
• The information stored in RAM get erased when the computer is turned off
73
 MEMORY UNIT
• RAM provides temporary storage for data and instructions.

• ROM is non-volatile memory, but is a read only memory.

• The storage in ROM is permanent in nature.

• ROM comes programmed by the manufacturer.

• RAM stores data and instructions during the execution of instructions.

• CPU accesses the data and the instructions from RAM.

74
 MEMORY UNIT
Cache Memory (Need of Cache Memory)
• The data and instructions that are required during the processing of data are brought
from the secondary storage devices and stored in the RAM.

• For processing, it is required that the data and instructions are accessed from the
RAM and stored in the registers.

• The time taken to move the data between RAM and CPU registers is large.

• This affects the speed of processing of computer.

• This results in decreasing the performance of CPU.

75
 MEMORY UNIT
• As it can access it at a fast speed than the storage devices connected to the
input and output unit.

• RAM provides a limited storage capacity, due to its high cost.

• The input data that is entered using the input unit is stored in RAM, to be
made available during the processing of data.

• Similarly, the output data generated after processing is stored in RAM

before being sent to the output device.

• Any intermediate results generated during the processing of program are

stored in RAM. 76
 MEMORY UNIT
• Cache memory is a very high speed memory placed in between RAM and CPU.

• Cache memory increases the speed of processing.

• Cache memory is a storage buffer that stores the data that is used more often,
temporarily, and makes them available to CPU at a fast rate.

• During processing, CPU first checks cache for the required data.

• If data is not found in cache, then it looks in the RAM for data.

77
MEMORY UNIT

78
RAM VS CACHE

79
 RAM VS CACHE
• Random Access Memory (RAM) is used to store the programs and
data being used by the CPU in real-time.

• The data on the random access memory can be read, written, and
erased any number of times.

• RAM is a hardware element where the data being currently used is

stored. It is a volatile memory.

• Two types of RAM are Static RAM, or (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM,
or (DRAM).
80
 RAM VS CACHE

• Cache is a smaller and fast memory component in the computer

which is inserted between the CPU and the main memory.

• To make this arrangement effective, cache needs to be much faster

than main memory.

• This approach is more economical to implement the entire main

memory.

81
 MEMORY UNIT
• The data and instructions that are currently not being used by CPU, but may be
required later for processing, are stored in secondary memory.

• Secondary memory has a high storage capacity than the primary memory.

• Secondary memory is also cheaper than the primary memory.

• It takes longer time to access the data and instructions stored in secondary memory
than in primary memory.

82
 MEMORY UNIT
Secondary Memory
• In addition to the main memory, there is another kind of storage device known as
the secondary memory.

• Secondary memory is non-volatile and is used for permanent storage of data and
programs.

• A program or data that has to be executed is brought into the RAM from the
secondary memory.

• It provides back-up storage for data and instructions. Hard disk drive, floppy
drive and optical disk drives are some examples of storage devices.
83
 Instruction Format and Instruction set
• A computer program is a set of instructions that describe the steps to be performed for
carrying out a computational task.
• The program and the data, on which the program operates, are stored in main memory,
waiting to be processed by the processor.
• This is also called the stored program concept.

84
 Instruction Format and Instruction set
• The operation code represents action that the processor must execute. It tells the processor
what basic operations to perform.

• The operand code defines the parameters of the action and depends on the operation.

• An Instruction Set is the set of all the basic operations that a processor can
accomplish. Examples of some instructions.

85
 Instruction Format and Instruction
set
• The instructions in the instruction set are the language that a processor understands.

• All programs have to communicate with the processor using these instructions.

•An instruction in the instruction set involves a series of logical operations

(may be thousands) that are performed to complete each task.

86
INSTRUCTION CYCLE DIAGRAM

87
 INSTRUCTION CYCLE
Fetching
• The processor fetches the instruction from the memory.
• The fetched instruction is placed in the Instruction Register.
• Program Counter holds the address of next instruction to be fetched and is incremented
after each fetch.

Decoding
The instruction that is fetched is broken down into parts or decoded.
The instruction is translated into commands so that they correspond to those in the CPU’s
instruction set.
The instruction set architecture of the CPU defines the way in which an instruction is
decoded.
88
 INSTRUCTION CYCLE
Executing
• The decoded instruction or the command is executed.

• CPU performs the operation implied by the program instruction.

• For example, if it is an ADD instruction, addition is performed

Storing
• CPU writes back the results of execution, to the computer’s memory.

89
 MEMORY UNIT
• A processor’s instruction set is a determining factor in its architecture.
• On the basis of the instruction set, microprocessors are classified as—Reduced Instruction
Set Computer (RISC).
• Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC). The x86 instruction set of the original
Intel 8086 processor is of the CISC type.
• The PCs are based on the x86 instruction set.
CISC architecture hardwires the processor with complex instructions, which are difficult
to create otherwise using basic instructions. CISC combines the different instructions into
one single CPU.
RISC has simple, single-cycle instructions, which performs only basic instructions. RISC
architecture does not have hardwired advanced functions. All high-level language
support is done in the software
90
 CISC
• CISC has a large instruction set that includes simple and fast instructions for performing
basic tasks, as well as complex instructions that correspond to statements in the high level
language.

• An increased number of instructions (200 to 300) results in a much more complex processor,
requiring millions of transistors.

• Instructions are of variable lengths, using 8, 16 or 32 bits for storage. This results in the
processor’s time being spent in calculating where each instruction begins and ends.

• With large number of application software programs being written for the processor, a new
processor has to be backwards compatible to the older version of processors.

• AMD and Cyrix are based on CISC.

91
 RISC
• RISC has fewer instructions and requires fewer transistors, which results in the reduced
manufacturing cost of processor.

• The instruction size is fixed (32 bits). The processor need not spend time in finding out where
each instruction begins and ends.

• RISC architecture has a reduced production cost compared to CISC processors.

• The instructions, simple in nature, are executed in just one clock cycle, which speeds up the
program execution when compared to CISC processors.

• RISC processors can handle multiple instructions simultaneously by processing them

in parallel.

• Apple Mac G3 and PowerPC are based on RISC. 92

 PIPELINING AND PARALLEL PROCESSING
• Pipelining improves instruction execution speed by putting the execution steps into
parallel. A CPU can receive a single instruction, begin executing it, and receive
another instruction before it has completed the first. This allows for more
instructions to be performed, about, one instruction per clock cycle.

• Parallel Processing is the simultaneous execution of instructions from the same

program on different processors. A program is divided into multiple processes that
are handled in parallel in order to reduce execution time.

93
BUS

94
 INTERCONNECTING THE UNITS OF COMPUTER

• CPU sends data, instructions and information to the components inside the
computer as well as to the peripherals and devices attached to it. Bus is a set of
electronic signal pathways that allows information and signals to travel between
components inside or outside of a computer.

The features and functionality of a bus are as follows—

• A bus is a set of wires used for interconnection, where each wire can carry one bit
of data.
• A bus width is defined by the number of wires in the bus.
• A computer bus can be divided into two types—Internal Bus and External Bus.
• The Internal Bus connects components inside the motherboard like, CPU and
system memory. It is also called the System Bus.
95
INTERCONNECTING THE UNITS OF COMPUTER

96
 INTERCONNECTING THE UNITS OF COMPUTER

• The External Bus connects the different external devices, peripherals, expansion slots,I/O
ports and drive connections to the rest of computer.
• The external bus allows various devices to be attached to the computer. It allows for the
expansion of computer's capabilities.
• It is generally slower than the system bus. It is also referred to as the Expansion Bus.

• A system bus or expansion bus comprise of three kinds of buses — data bus, address
bus
• and control bus.
• The interaction of CPU with memory and I/O devices involves all the three buses.
• The command to access the memory or the I/O device is carried by the control bus.
• The address of I/O device or memory is carried by the address bus.
• The data to be transferred is carried by the data bus.
97
 DATA BUS
• Data Bus transfers data between the CPU and memory. The bus width of a
data bus affects the speed of computer. The size of data bus defines the size
of the processor.

• A processor can be 8, 16, 32 or 64-bit processor. An 8–bit processor has 8

wire data bus to carry 1 byte of data. In a 16–bit processor, 16–wire bus can
carry 16 bits of data, i.e., transfer 2 bytes, etc.

98
 ADDRESS AND CONTROL BUS
• Address Bus connects CPU and RAM with set of wires similar to data bus. The
width of address bus determines the maximum number of memory locations the
computer can address. Currently, Pentium Pro, II, III, IV have 36–bit address bus
that can address 236bytes or 64 GB of memory.

• Control Bus specifies whether data is to be read or written to the memory, etc.

99
 External Ports
• The peripheral devices interact with the CPU of the computer via the bus.

• The connections to the bus from the peripheral devices are made via the ports and sockets provided at the
sides of the computer.

• The different ports and sockets facilitate the connection of different devices to the computer.

• Some of the standard port connections available on the outer sides of the computer are— port for
mouse, keyboard, monitor, network, modem, and, audio port, serial port, parallel port and USB port.
• The different ports are physically identifiable by their different shapes, size of contact pins and number
of pins.

100
PERFORMANCE OF A COMPUTER

• REGISTERS
• RAM
• SYSTEM CLOCK
• BUS
• CACHE MEMORY

101
MEMORY REPRESENTATION

102
 MEMORY REPRESENTATION
• Memory is logically organized as a linear array of locations. For a
processor, the range of the memory addresses is 0 to the
maximum size of memory. This Figure shows the organization of a
16 MB block of memory for a processor with a 32-bit word length.

103
 Memory Hierarchy

• The memory is characterized on the basis of two key

factors—capacity and access time.

• Access time is the time interval between the read/ write request and
the availability of data. The lesser the access time, the faster is the
speed of memory.

• Ideally, we want the memory with fastest speed and largest capacity.
However, the cost of fast memory is very high.

104
Memory Hierarchy

105
Memory Hierarchy-Registers
• Registers are very high-speed storage areas located inside the CPU.

• After CPU gets the data and instructions from the cache or RAM, the data and
instructions are moved to the registers for processing.

• Registers are manipulated directly by the control unit of CPU during

instruction execution.

106
Memory Hierarchy-Registers
• That is why registers are often referred to as the CPU’s working memory.

• Since CPU uses registers for the processing of data, the number of registers in a
CPU and the size of each register affect the power and speed of a CPU.

• The more the number of registers (ten to hundreds) and bigger the size of each
register (8 bits to 64 bits), the better it is.

107
Memory Hierarchy-Cache Memory

108
 Memory Hierarchy-Cache Memory
• Cache memory is placed in between the CPU and the RAM. Cache memory is a
fast memory, faster than the RAM. When the CPU needs an instruction or data
during processing, it first looks in the cache.

• If the information is present in the cache, it is called a cache hit, and the data or
instruction is retrieved from the cache. If the information is not present in
cache, then it is called a cache miss and the information is then retrieved from
RAM.

• The content of cache is decided by the cache controller (a circuit on the

motherboard).

109
 Memory Hierarchy-Cache Memory
• Cache an expensive and high speed memory.

• Due to its high cost CPU comes with relatively small amount
of cache.

• Without cache data retrieval process is slow.

• Idea of introducing cache is to store the frequently accessed data

around it.

• Cache achieve quickest possible response time to the CPU.

110
 Memory Hierarchy-Cache Memory

• The most recently accessed information or instructions help the controller to

guess the RAM locations that may be accessed next.

• To get good system performance, the number of hits must far outnumber the
misses.

• The two main factors that affect the performance of cache are its size and level
(L1, L2 and L3).

111
 Memory Hierarchy-Random Access Memory

• RAM is used to store data and instructions during the operation of computer.
• RAM loses information when the computer is powered off. It is a volatile
memory.
• RAM provides random access to the stored bytes, words, or larger data
units.
• RAM can be read from and written to with the same speed.
• The size of RAM is limited due to its high cost. The size of RAM is measured in
MB or GB.
• The performance of RAM is affected by Access speed (how quickly
information can be retrieved). The speed of RAM is expressed in nanoseconds.
• Data transfer unit size (how much information can be retrieved in one request).
112
Memory Hierarchy-Random Access Memory

113
 Memory Hierarchy-Random Access Memory
• RAM affects the speed and power of a computer. More the RAM, the better it is.
• Nowadays, computers generally have 512 MB to 4 GB of RAM.
• RAM is a microchip implemented using semiconductors.

There are two categories of RAM, depending on the technology used to construct a
RAM— (1) Dynamic RAM (DRAM), and (2) Static RAM (SRAM).

•DRAM is the most common type of memory chip. DRAM is mostly used as main
memory since it is small and cheap.
• SRAM chip is usually used in cache memory due to its high speed.

114
 Memory Hierarchy-DRAM VS SRAM
DRAM -> It uses transistors and capacitors.
• DRAM must be refreshed continually to store information.
• DRAM gets its name from the refresh operation that it requires to store the information;
otherwise it will lose what it is holding.
• DRAM is slow because the refreshing takes time.
• Access speed of DRAM ranges from 50 to 150 ns.
SRAM-> SRAM uses multiple transistors.
• It does not need constant refreshing and therefore is faster than DRAM.
• SRAM is more expensive than DRAM, and it takes up more space.
• It stores information as long as it is supplied with power.
• SRAM are easier to use and very fast. The access speed of SRAM ranges from 2–10
nanosecond.
115
Memory Hierarchy-DRAM VS SRAM

116
 ROMs are of different kinds
• Programmable ROM (PROM).
• Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM).
• Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM).

• PROM can be programmed with a special tool, but after it has been programmed the
contents cannot be changed.

• PROM memories have thousands of fuses (or diodes). High voltage (12 V) is applied to the
fuses to be burnt. The burnt fuses correspond to 0 and the others to 1.

117
 Memory Hierarchy- ROM READ ONLY MEMORY
• ROM is a non-volatile primary memory. It does not lose its content when the power is
switched off.
• ROM, as the name implies, has only read capability and no write capability.
• ROM comes programmed by the manufacturer.
• The ROM memory chip stores the Basic Input Output System (BIOS). BIOS provides the
processor with the information required to boot the system.
• Power On Self Test (POST) is a program that runs automatically when the system is booted.
BIOS performs the power-on self-test. It checks that the major hardware components are
working properly.
• BIOS setup program, which is a built-in utility in BIOS, lets the user set the many functions
that control how the computer works.
• Bootstrap Loader is a program whose purpose is to start the computer software for
operation when the power is turned on.
118
 ROMs are of different kinds
EPROM can be programmed in a similar way as PROM, but it can be erased by exposing it to
ultra violet light and re-programmed. EPROM chips have to be removed from the computer
for re-writing.

EEPROM memories can be erased by electric charge and re- programmed. EEPROM chips do
not have to be removed from the computer for re-writing.

Flash Memory is a kind of semiconductor-based non-volatile, rewritable computer memory

that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed (Figure 3.6). It is a specific type of
EEPROM.

119
 ACCESS TYPES OF STORAGE DEVICES
• The information stored in storage devices can be accessed in two ways—
• 1. Sequential access
• 2. Direct access.

• Sequential Access -> Sequential access means that computer must run through the data in
sequence, starting from the beginning, in order to locate a particular piece of data.
Magnetic tape is an example of sequential access device.

120
 Magnetic Tapes
• Magnetic tape is a plastic tape with magnetic coating.

• It is a storage medium on a large open reel or in a smaller cartridge or cassette (like a music
cassette).

• Magnetic tapes are cheaper storage media, durable, can be written, erased, and re-written.

• Tape needs to rewind or move forward to the location where the requested data is positioned
in the magnetic tape.

• Due to their sequential nature, magnetic tapes are not suitable for data files that need to be
revised or updated often. Generally used to store back-up data that is not frequently used
or to transfer data from one system to other
121
 Working of Magnetic Tape
• Magnetic tape is divided horizontally into tracks (7 or 9) and vertically into frames
• A frame stores one byte of data, and a track in a frame stores one bit. Data is
stored in successive frames as a string with one data (byte) per frame.

• A close look into magnetic tape.

122
 Working of Magnetic Tape
•Data is recorded on tape in the form of blocks, where a block consists of a group of data
also called as records. Each block is read continually.

There is an Inter-Record Gap(IRG) between two blocks that provides time for the tape to be
stopped and started between records.

• Magnetic tape is mounted on a magnetic tape drive for access.

• The basic magnetic tape drive mechanism consists of the supply reel, take-up reel, and the
read/write head Assembly.
123
 Working of Magnetic Tape
• The magnetic tape moves on tape drive from the supply reel to take-up reel, with its
magnetic coated side passing over the read/write head.

• Tapes are categorized based on their width - ¼ inch, ½ inch, etc.

• The storage capacity of the tape varies greatly.

• A 10–inch diameter reel of tape which is 2400 feet long can store up to 180 million
characters.

124
 Features of Magnetic Tape
• Inexpensive storage device.

• Can store a large amount of data.

• Easy to carry or transport.

• Not suitable for random access data.

• Slow access device.

• Needs dust prevention, as dust can harm the tape,suitable for back-up storage
or archiving.
125
 Magnetic Disk-Direct Access
• Magnetic disk is a direct access secondary storage device.
• It is a thin plastic or metallic circular plate coated with magnetic oxide and encased in a
protective cover.
• Data is stored on magnetic disks as magnetized spots. The presence of a magnetic spot
represents the bit 1 and its absence represents the bit 0.
A close Look of Magnetic Disk:

126
 Magnetic Disk-Direct Access
• The surface of disk is divided into concentric circles known as tracks.
• The outermost track is numbered 0 and the innermost track is the last track. Tracks
are further divided into sectors.
• A sector is a pie slice that cuts across all tracks. The data on disk is stored in
sector.
• Sector is the smallest unit that can be read or written on a disk.
• A disk has eight or more sectors per track.

127
 Magnetic Disk-Direct Access
• Magnetic disk is inserted into a magnetic disk drive for access.
• The drive consists of a read/write head that is attached to a disk arm, which moves the
head. The disk arm can move inward and outward on the disk.
• During reading or writing to disk, the motor of disk drive moves the disk at high
speed(60–150 times/sec.).
Accessing data in th disk requires the following:
• Seek Time-> The read/write head is positioned to the desired track where the data is
to be read from or written to. The time taken to move the read/write head to the
desired track is called the seek time.

• Latency Time-> The time taken for desired sector of the track to come under
read/write head is called the latency time.

128
 Magnetic Disk-Direct Access
• The rate at which data is written to disk or read from disk is called data transfer rate.

• Access Time -> The sum of seek time, latency time and time for data transfer is the
access time of the disk.

• The storage capacity of disk drive is measured in gigabytes (GB).

• Large disk storage is created by stacking together multiple disks. A set of same tracks
on all disks forms a cylinder. Each disk has its own read/write head which work in
coordination.

• Disk can also have tracks and sectors on both sides. Such a disk is called
double-sided disk. 129
 Magnetic Disk-Direct Access
The features of magnetic disk are—
• Cheap storage device
• Can store a large amount of data
• Easy to carry or transport
• Suitable for frequently read/write data
• Fast access device
• More reliable storage device
• To be prevented from dust, as the read/write head flies over the disk. Any dust
particle in between can corrupt the disk.
Types of Magnetic disks:
• Floppy disk, hard disk and zip disk are the different types of magnetic disks.
130
 Finding data on a magnetic disk
Four areas are created when a disk is formatted using FAT

1. Boot Sector 2. File allocation Table 3. Root directory 4. Data Area

• Boot Sector-> It contains the program that runs when the computer is started. The
program checks if the disk has files required to run the operating system.
• It then transfers control to an operating system program which continues the start up
process.
• Boot sector also contains information about the disk, like number of bytes per sector
and number of sectors per track.
• This information is required by the operating system to access the data on the disk.

131
 Finding data on a magnetic disk
• In order to use a disk, it has to be formatted. Formatting includes assigning addresses
to various locations on disk, assigning location of root directory and checking for
defects on the surface of disk.

• During formatting, the tracks and sectors of a disk are labelled, which provides an
address to each location of the disk.

• There are different methods to format a disk. File Allocation Table (FAT) is the
commonly used logical format for disk formatting performed by Windows

132
 Finding data on a magnetic disk
File Allocation Table->
• It records the location of each file and status of each sector.
• While reading or writing to disk, operating system checks the FAT to find free area or
locate where data is stored on disk, respectively.
Root Directory->
• This is the main folder of disk. It contains other folders in it, creating a hierarchical
system of folders. The root directory contains information about all folders on the
disk.
Data Area->
• The remaining area of the disk (after boot sector, FAT, root directory)is the data area.
It stores the program files and data files that are stored on the disk.

133
 Floppy Disk
• Floppy disk (FD) is a flat, round, single disk made of Mylar plastic and enclosed in
square plastic jacket
• Floppy Disk Drive (FDD) is the disk drive for floppy disk.
• The floppy disk is inserted into the floppy disk drive to read or write data to it.
• Floppy disk has a write-protect slide tab that prevents a user from writing to it.
• A floppy disk may be single-sided or double-sided disk, i.e., data can be read and
written
on one and both sides of floppy disk, respectively.

134
 Floppy Disk
• They are portable, they can be removed from the disk drive, carried or stored
separately.

• They are small and inexpensive, slower to access than hard disk.

• They have less storage capacity and are less expensive than hard disk.

• They come in two basic sizes 5-¼ inch and 3-½ inch. 5-¼ inch disk came
around 1987. It can store 360 KB to 1.2 MB of data.

• The 3-½ inch disk has capacity of 400 KB to 1.44 MB. It usually contains 40 tracks
and 18 sectors per track and can store 512 bytes per sector.
135
Hard Disk

136
 Hard Disk
• A hard disk (HD) consists of one or more platters divided into concentric
tracks and sectors.

• It is mounted on a central spindle, like a stack. It can be read by a read/write

head that pivots across the rotating disks.

• The data is stored on the platters covered with magnetic coating.

• Hard disk is a fixed disk. The disk is not removable from the drive, unlike
floppy disk.

• The hard disk and Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is a single unit.

137
 Hard Disk
• Hard disk can store much more data than floppy disk.

• The data in hard disk are packed more closely (because fast spinning uses smaller magnetic
charges) and they have multiple platters, with data being stored on both sides of each platter.
Large capacity hard disks may have 12 or more platters.

• Unlike floppy disk, the read/write head of hard disk does not touch the disk during
accessing.

• Hard disk spinning speed 10,000 revolutions per minute and have an access time of 9—14
ms.

• It stores 512 bytes per sector but the number of sectors are more per track (54 or more) than
floppy disk. Nowadays, hard disks are available that can store up to 500 GB of data. Generally, PCs
come with 160 GB hard disk.
138
Zip Disk

139
 Zip Disk
• They are high-capacity removable disk and drive.
• They have the speed and capacity of hard disk and portability of floppy disk.

• Zip disk are of the same size as floppy disk, i.e., 3–½ inch but have a much higher
capacity than the floppy disk.

• Zip disk and drive were made by Iomega Corp. It comes as a complete unit— disk, drive,
connection cable, power cord and operating system.

• It can be connected to the computer system externally using a parallel chord or SCSI
cable.

•Their capacity ranges from 100 MB to 750 MB. They can be used to store large files,
140
audio and video data.
 OPTICAL DISK
• Optical disk -> is a flat and circular disk which is coated with reflective plastic
material that can be altered by laser light. Optical disk does not use magnetism. The bits
1 and 0 are stored as spots that are relatively bright and light, respectively.
• An optical disk consists of a single spiral track that starts from the edge to the centre of
disk.
• The random access on optical disk is slower than that of magnetic disk, due to its spiral
shape.

141
 OPTICAL DISK
• Optical disks can store large amount of data, up to 6 GB, in a small space.
• Commonly used optical disks store 600–700 MB of data.
• The access time for an optical disk ranges from 100 to 200 ms.
•There are two most common categories of optical disks—read-only optical disks and
recordable optical disks.

CD –ROM ------------□

S.SHEIK MOHIDEEN SHAH/AP/CSE/SRC/SASTRA 142

 OPTICAL DISK-Types
• CD-ROM

• Originally, Compact Disk (CD) was a popular medium for storing music.

• A CD-ROM drive reads data from the compact disk.

• The storage density of CD-ROM is very high and cost is low as compared to floppy
disk
• and hard disk.

• As CD-ROM is read only, no changes can be made into the data contained in it.

• Speed 2X 4X 25x etc. Commonly used medium for distributing software and large
143
data.
 OPTICAL
DISK-types
• DVD-ROM------------------□

144
 OPTICAL DISK-types
DVD-ROM
• It improves on CD technology.

• It is a high-density medium with increased track and bit density.

• DVD-ROM uses both sides of the disk and special data compression technologies. The tracks
for storing data are extremely small.

• A full-length movie can be stored on a single disk.

• Each side of DVD-ROM can store 4.7 GB of data, so a single DVD can store 9.4 GB of data.

• New DVD-ROMs use layers of data track, to double its capacity. Such dual layer disks can
store 17 GB of data. 145
 OPTICAL DISK-types
• Recordable Optical Disk

Compact Disk-Recordable (CD-R) -> Write Once-Read Many (WORM) disk

Compact Disk-Re Writable (CD-RW)-> allows data to be written, erased and re-written
on.

• Digital Video Disk-Recordable (DVD-R)-> Allows recording of data on a DVD. A

DVD writer device is required to write the data to DVD. The data once written on a
DVD cannot be erased or changed.

146
OPTICAL DISK-types

147
 Magneto optical Disk

• Magneto-optical disks use laser beam to read data and magnetic field to write data to
disk.
• These are optical disks where data can be written, erased and re-written.
• They are expensive and outdated.
• They were used during the mid 1990s.
• They have now been replaced by CD-RW and DVD-R.

148
 USING THE COMPUTER MEMORY

• Turn the computer on.

• The computer loads data from ROM. It makes sure that all the major components of the
computer are functioning properly.
• The computer loads the BIOS from ROM.
• The computer loads the OS from the hard drive into the system’s RAM.
• Now the system is ready for use.
• When you load or open an application it is loaded in the RAM.
• The CPU requests the data it needs from RAM, processes it and writes new data back
to
• RAM in a continuous cycle.
• When you save a file and close the application.
• If the files are not saved to a storage device before being closed, they are lost.
149
 PARTS INSIDE A COMPUTER
• Motherboard

• ROM BIOS

150
 PARTS INSIDE A COMPUTER
• Ports and interfaces

• Expansion slots

151
 PARTS INSIDE A COMPUTER
• Ribbon cables

• Memory chips

152
 PARTS INSIDE A COMPUTER
Storage devices
1.Hard Disk
2. DVD Drive
3. Floppy Disk
4. CD

153