212CSE3302 – Computer Networks

Unit I Part II

Introduction
NETWORK SOFTWARE
Network software is now highly structured.
1. Protocol Hierarchies
 To reduce their design complexity, most networks are organized as a stack of layers
or levels, each one built upon the one below it.
 The number of layers, the name of each layer, the contents of each layer, and the
function of each layer differ from network to network.
 The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher layers while
shielding those layers from the details of how the offered services are actually
implemented.
 The fundamental idea is that a particular piece of software (or hardware) provides a
service to its users but keeps the details of its internal state and algorithms hidden
from them.
 When layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n on another
machine, the rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively known
as the layer n protocol.
 Basically, a protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed.
 A five-layer network is illustrated in Fig. 1-13. The entities comprising the
corresponding layers on different machines are called peers.
 The peers may be software processes, hardware devices, or even human beings.

Network Architecture: A set of layers and protocols

Protocol Stack: A list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer.
 In reality, no data are directly transferred from layer n on one machine to layer n on another machine.
 Each layer passes data and control information to the layer immediately below it, until the lowest layer is
reached.
 Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which actual communication occurs.
 In Fig. 1-13, virtual communication is shown by dotted lines and physical communication by solid lines.
 Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface, which defines which primitive operations and
services the lower layer makes available to the upper one.
 A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture.
 A list of the protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is called a protocol stack.

 How to provide communication to the top layer of the five-layer network in Fig. 1.15.
 A message, M, is produced by an application process running in layer 5 and given to layer 4 for
transmission.
 Layer 4 puts a header in front of the message to identify the message and passes the result to layer 3.
 The header includes control information, such as addresses, to allow layer 4 on the destination machine
to deliver the message.
Fig.113 The philosopher-translator-secretary architecture.
 Other examples of control information used in some layers are sequence numbers (in
case the lower layer does not preserve message order), sizes, and times.
 In many networks, no limit is placed on the size of messages transmitted in the layer 4
protocol but there is nearly always a limit imposed by the layer 3 protocol.
 Consequently, layer 3 must break up the incoming messages into smaller units,
packets, prepending a layer 3 header to each packet. In this example, M is split into
two parts, M1 and M2, that will be transmitted separately.

Figure 1-15. Example information flow supporting virtual communication in layer 5.

  Layer 3 decides which of the outgoing lines to use and passes the packets to layer 2.
 Layer 2 adds to each piece not only a header but also a trailer, and gives the resulting
unit to layer 1 for physical transmission.
 At the receiving machine the message moves upward, from layer to layer, with
headers being stripped off as it progresses.
 None of the headers for layers below n are passed up to layer n.

2. Design Issues for the Layers

 Reliability is the design issue of making a network that operates correctly even
though it is made up of a collection of components that are themselves unreliable.
 There is a chance that some of these bits will be received damaged (inverted) due to
fluke electrical noise, random wireless signals, hardware flaws, software bugs and so
on.
 One mechanism for finding errors in received information uses codes for error
detection.
 Information that is incorrectly received can then be retransmitted until it is received
correctly.
 More powerful codes allow for error correction, where the correct message is
recovered from the possibly incorrect bits that were originally received. Both of these
mechanisms work by adding redundant information.
 They are used at low layers, to protect packets sent over individual links, and high
layers, to check that the right contents were received.
 Another reliability issue is finding a working path through a network.
 Often there are multiple paths between a source and destination, and in a large
network, there may be some links or routers that are broken.
 The network should automatically make this decision to choose another path to reach
the destination. This topic is called routing.
 A second design issue concerns the evolution of the network.
 Over time, networks grow larger and new designs emerge that need to be connected to
the existing network.
 We have recently seen the key structuring mechanism used to support change by
dividing the overall problem and hiding implementation details: protocol layering.
 Since there are many computers on the network, every layer needs a mechanism for
identifying the senders and receivers that are involved in a particular message. This
mechanism is called addressing or naming, in the low and high layers, respectively.
 An aspect of growth is that different network technologies often have different
limitations. For example, not all communication channels preserve the order of
messages sent on them, leading to solutions that number messages. Another example
is differences in the maximum size of a message that the networks can transmit. This
leads to mechanisms for disassembling, transmitting, and then reassembling
messages. This overall topic is called internetworking.
 When networks get large, new problems arise. Designs that continue to work well
when the network gets large are said to be scalable.
 A third design issue is resource allocation. Networks provide a service to hosts from
their underlying resources, such as the capacity of transmission lines.
 To do this well, they need mechanisms that divide their resources so that one host
does not interfere with another too much.
 Many designs share network bandwidth dynamically, according to the short-term
needs of hosts, rather than by giving each host a fixed fraction of the bandwidth that it
may or may not use. This design is called statistical multiplexing, meaning sharing
based on the statistics of demand.
 It can be applied at low layers for a single link, or at high layers for a network or even
applications that use the network.
 An allocation problem that occurs at every level is how to keep a fast sender from
swamping a slow receiver with data.
 Feedback from the receiver to the sender is often used. This subject is called flow
control.
 Sometimes the problem is that the network is oversubscribed because too many
computers want to send too much traffic, and the network cannot deliver it all. This
overloading of the network is called congestion. One strategy is for each computer to
reduce its demand when it experiences congestion.
 For uses such as carrying live video, the timeliness of delivery matters a great deal.
Most networks must provide service to applications that want this real-time delivery
at the same time that they provide service to applications that want high throughput. -
Quality of service

 The last major design issue is to secure the network by defending it against different
kinds of threats.
 One of the threats we have mentioned previously is that of eavesdropping on
communications.
 Mechanisms that provide confidentiality defend against this threat, and they are used
in multiple layers.
 Mechanisms for authentication prevent someone from impersonating someone else.
 They might be used to tell fake banking Web sites from the real one, or to let the
cellular network check that a call is really coming from your phone so that you will
pay the bill.
 Other mechanisms for integrity prevent surreptitious changes to messages, such as
altering ‘‘debit my account $10’’ to ‘‘debit my account $1000.’’
3. Connection-oriented and Connectionless Service
 Connection-oriented service is modeled after the telephone system.
 To use a connection-oriented network service, the service user first establishes a
connection, uses the connection, and then releases the connection.
 The essential aspect of a connection is that it acts like a tube: the sender pushes
objects (bits) in at one end, and the receiver takes them out at the other end.
 In most cases the order is preserved so that the bits arrive in the order they were sent
 In some cases when a connection is established, the sender, receiver, and subnet
conduct a negotiation about the parameters to be used, such as maximum message
size, quality of service required, and other issues.
 Typically, one side makes a proposal and the other side can accept it, reject it, or
make a counterproposal.
 A circuit is another name for a connection with associated resources, such as a fixed
bandwidth.

 In contrast to connection-oriented service, connectionless service is modeled after the

postal system.
 Each message (letter) carries the full destination address, and each one is routed
through the intermediate nodes inside the system independent of all the subsequent
messages.
 When the intermediate nodes receive a message in full before sending it on to the next
node, this is called store-and-forward switching.
 The alternative, in which the onward transmission of a message at a node starts before
it is completely received by the node, is called cut-through switching.

 Each kind of service can further be characterized by its reliability.

 Some services are reliable in the sense that they never lose data.
 Usually, a reliable service is implemented by having the receiver acknowledge the
receipt of each message so the sender is sure that it arrived.
 The acknowledgement process introduces overhead and delays, which are often worth
it but are sometimes undesirable.
 Reliable connection-oriented service has two minor variations: message sequences
and byte streams.

 Not all applications require connections. For example, spammers send electronic
junk-mail to many recipients.
 Unreliable (meaning not acknowledged) connectionless service is often called
datagram service, which also does not return an acknowledgement to the sender.
 In other situations, the convenience of not having to establish a connection to send
one message is desired, but reliability is essential.
 The acknowledged datagram service can be provided for these applications. It is like
sending a registered letter and requesting a return receipt. Text messaging on mobile
phones is an example.

 Still another service is the request-reply service. In this service the sender transmits a
single datagram containing a request; the reply contains the answer.
 Request-reply is commonly used to implement communication in the client-server
model: the client issues a request and the server responds to it.

Six different
types of
service.
4. Service Primitives
 A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available to user
processes to access the service.
 These primitives tell the service to perform some action or report on an action taken
by a peer entity.
 If the protocol stack is located in the operating system, as it often is, the primitives are
normally system calls.
 These calls cause a trap to kernel mode, which then turns control of the machine over
to the operating system to send the necessary packets.

Six service primitives that provide a simple connection-

oriented service
 These primitives might be used for a request-reply interaction in a client-server
environment.

Packets sent in a simple client-server interaction

on a connection-oriented network.
5. The Relationship of Services to Protocols
 A service is a set of primitives (operations) that a layer provides to the layer above it.
 The service defines what operations the layer is prepared to perform on behalf of its
users, but it says nothing at all about how these operations are implemented.
 A service relates to an interface between two layers, with the lower layer being the
service provider and the upper layer being the service user.
 A protocol, in contrast, is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the
packets, or messages that are exchanged by the peer entities within a layer.
 Entities use protocols to implement their service definitions.

The relationship between a service and a protocol.

 Reference Models
1. The OSI Reference Model
 The model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards
Organization (ISO) as a first step toward international standardization of the
protocols used in the various layers (Day and Zimmermann, 1983).
 It was revised in 1995 (Day,1995). The model is called the ISO OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with
connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for communication
with other systems.
 The OSI model has seven layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at
the seven layers can be briefly summarized as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining
internationally standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across
the interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be
thrown together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the
architecture does not become unwieldy.
The Physical Layer
 The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a
communication channel.
 The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1
bit it is received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.
 Typical questions here are
1. what electrical signals should be used to represent a 1 and a 0,
2. how many nanoseconds a bit lasts,
3. whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both directions,
4. how the initial connection is established,
5. how it is torn down
6. when both sides are finished,
7. how many pins the network connector has, and
8. what each pin is used for.
 These design issues largely deal with mechanical, electrical, and timing
interfaces, as well as the physical transmission medium, which lies below the
physical layer.
The Data Link Layer
 The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission
facility into a line that appears free of undetected transmission errors.
 It does so by masking the real errors so the network layer does not see them.
 It accomplishes this task by having the sender break up the input data into
data frames (typically a few hundred or a few thousand bytes) and transmit
the frames sequentially.
 If the service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame
by sending back an acknowledgement frame.

 Another issue that arises in the data link layer (and most of the higher layers
as well) is how to keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in
data. – Flow Control
 Some traffic regulation mechanism may be needed to let the transmitter
know when the receiver can accept more data.

 Broadcast networks have an additional issue in the data link layer: how to
control access to the shared channel. A special sublayer of the data link layer,
the medium access control sublayer, deals with this problem.
The Network Layer
 The network layer controls the operation of the subnet.
 A key design issue is determining how packets are routed from source to destination. -
Routing
 Routes can be based on static tables that are ‘‘wired into’’ the network and rarely changed,
or more often they can be updated automatically to avoid failed components.
 If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get in one
another’s way, forming bottlenecks.
 Handling congestion is also a responsibility of the network layer, in conjunction with
higher layers that adapt the load they place on the network.
 More generally, the quality of service provided (delay, transit time, jitter, etc.) is also a
network layer issue.
 When a packet has to travel from one network to another to get to its destination, many
problems can arise.
 The addressing used by the second network may be different from that used by the first
one.
 The second one may not accept the packet at all because it is too large. The protocols may
differ, and so on.
 It is up to the network layer to overcome all these problems to allow heterogeneous
networks to be interconnected.
The Transport Layer
 The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above it, split it up into
smaller units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all
arrive correctly at the other end. – Segmentation and Reassembly
 It also determines what type of service to provide to the session layer, and, ultimately, to
the users of the network.
 The most popular type of transport connection is an error-free point-to-point channel that
delivers messages or bytes in the order in which they were sent.
 However, other possible kinds of transport service exist, such as the transporting of
isolated messages with no guarantee about the order of delivery, and the broadcasting of
messages to multiple destinations. The type of service is determined when the connection
is established.
 The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer; it carries data all the way from the source to
the destination.
 In other words, a program on the source machine carries on a conversation with a similar
program on the destination machine, using the message headers and control messages.
 In the lower layers, each protocols is between a machine and its immediate neighbors, and
not between the ultimate source and destination machines, which may be separated by
many routers.
 The difference between layers 1 through 3, which are chained, and layers 4 through 7,
which are end-to-end, is illustrated in Fig..
 The Session Layer
 The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them.
 Sessions offer various services, including dialog control (keeping track of whose turn it is
to transmit), token management (preventing two parties from attempting the same critical
operation simultaneously), and synchronization (checkpointing long transmissions to
allow them to pick up from where they left off in the event of a crash and subsequent
recovery).

The Presentation Layer

 The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.
 In order to make it possible for computers with different internal data representations to
communicate, the data structures to be exchanged can be defined in an abstract way, along with a
standard encoding to be used ‘‘on the wire.’’
 The presentation layer manages these abstract data structures and allows higher-level data structures
(e.g., banking records) to be defined and exchanged.
The Application Layer
 The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by users.
 One widely used application protocol is HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), which is the basis for the
World Wide Web.
 When a browser wants a Web page, it sends the name of the page it wants to the server hosting the page
using HTTP.
 The server then sends the page back. Other application protocols are used for file transfer, electronic mail,
and network news.

2. The TCP/IP Reference Model

The Link Layer
 All these requirements led to the choice of a packet-switching network based on a
connectionless layer that runs across different networks.
 The lowest layer in the model, the link layer describes what links such as serial lines and
classic Ethernet must do to meet the needs of this connectionless internet layer.
 It is not really a layer at all, in the normal sense of the term, but rather an interface
between hosts and transmission links.
The Internet Layer
 The internet layer is the linchpin that holds the whole architecture together.
 Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have them travel independently to the destination (potentially on a different network).
 They may even arrive in a completely different order than they were sent, in which case it is the job of higher layers to rearrange them, if in-order
delivery is desired.
 Note that ‘‘internet’’ is used here in a generic sense, even though this layer is present in the Internet.
 The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (Internet Protocol), plus a companion protocol called ICMP (Internet
Control Message Protocol) that helps it function.
 The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to go.
 Packet routing is clearly a major issue here, as is congestion
The Transport Layer
 The transport layer is designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on a conversation, just as in the OSI transport layer.
 Two end-to-end transport protocols have been defined here.
 The first one, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), is a reliable connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte stream originating on one machine to be delivered without error on any other
machine in the internet.
 It segments the incoming byte stream into discrete messages and passes each one on to the internet layer.
 At the destination, the receiving TCP process reassembles the received messages into the output stream.
 TCP also handles flow control to make sure a fast sender cannot swamp a slow receiver with more messages than it can handle.
 The second protocol in this layer, UDP (User Datagram Protocol), is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that do not want TCP’s sequencing or flow control and wish to
provide their own.
 It is also widely used for one-shot, client-server-type request-reply queries and applications in which prompt delivery is more important than accurate delivery, such as transmitting speech or
video.
 The relation of IP, TCP, and UDP is shown in Fig.. Since the model was developed, IP has been implemented on many other networks.
 Figure. The TCP/IP model with some protocols we will study
The Application Layer
 The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layers.
 No need for them was perceived. Instead, applications simply include any session and presentation functions that they require.
 On top of the transport layer is the application layer. It contains all the higher- level protocols.
 The early ones included virtual terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP), and electronic mail (SMTP). Many other protocols
have been added to these over the years.
 Some important ones that we will study, shown in Fig., include the Domain Name System (DNS), for mapping host names onto
their network addresses, HTTP, the protocol for fetching pages on the World Wide Web, and RTP, the protocol for delivering
real-time media such as voice or movies.
 GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 The purpose of the physical layer is to transport bits from one machine to another.
 Various physical media can be used for the actual transmission.
 Each one has its own niche in terms of bandwidth, delay, cost, and ease of installation and
maintenance.
 Media are roughly grouped into guided media, such as copper wire and fiber optics, and
unguided media, such as terrestrial wireless, satellite, and lasers through the air.

1. Magnetic Media
 One of the most common ways to transport data from one computer to another is to write them onto magnetic tape or removable
media (e.g., recordable DVDs), physically transport the tape or disks to the destination machine, and read them back in again.
 Though it may seem old-fashion way in today’s world of high speed internet, but when the size of data is huge, the magnetic media
comes into play.
 For example, a bank has to handle and transfer huge data of its customer, which stores a backup of it at some geographically far-away
place for security reasons and to keep it from uncertain calamities. If the bank needs to store its huge backup data then its, transfer
through internet is not feasible. The WAN links may not support such high speed. Even if they do; the cost too high to afford.
 In these cases, data backup is stored onto magnetic tapes or magnetic discs, and then shifted physically at remote places.
2. Twisted Pairs
• A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper),
each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together, as
shown in Figure.
• One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and
the other is used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses
the difference between the two.
• In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires,
interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and
create unwanted signals.
• If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted
signals is not the same in both wires because they are at
different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources
(e,g., one is closer and the other is farther).
• This results in a difference at the receiver. By twisting the
pairs, a balance is maintained.
• For example, suppose in one twist, one wire is closer to the
noise source and the other is farther; in the next twist, the
reverse is true.
• Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally
affected by external influences (noise or crosstalk).
• This means that the receiver, which calculates the difference
between the two, receives no unwanted signals.
• The unwanted signals are mostly canceled out.
• From the above discussion, it is clear that the number of twists
per unit of length (e.g., inch) has some effect on the quality of
the cable.
Figure 7.4 UTP and STP cables
Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair
Cable
•The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications
is referred to as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP).
•IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its
use called shielded twisted-pair (STP).
•STP cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering that
encases each pair of insulated conductors.
•Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by
preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and
more expensive.
 Table 7.1 Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables
The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed standards to classify unshielded
twisted-pair cable into seven categories. Categories are determined by cable quality, with 1 as the
lowest and 7 as the highest.
Figure 7.5 UTP connector
The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack), as
shown in Figure 7.5. The RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector
can be inserted in only one way.
Figure 7.6 UTP performance
• One way to measure the performance of twisted-pair cable is to compare attenuation
versus frequency and distance.
• A twisted-pair cable can pass a wide range of frequencies.
• However, Figure 7.6 shows that with increasing frequency, the attenuation measured in
decibels per kilometer (dB/km), sharply increases with frequencies above 100 kHz. Note
that gauge is a measure of the thickness of the wire.
APPLICATIONS
• Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data
channels.
• The local loop - the line that connects subscribers to the central telephone
office---commonly consists of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
• The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high-data-
rate connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-
pair cables.
• Local-area networks, such as 1OBase-T and 1OOBase-T, also use twisted-pair
cables.
3. Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those
in twisted pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite
differently.
• Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or
stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in
turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of
the two.
• The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the
second conductor, which completes the circuit.
• This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole
cable is protected by a plastic cover.
Figure 7.7 Coaxial cable
Coaxial Cable Standards
Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio government (RG) ratings.

Each RG number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including

the wire gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner
insulator, the construction of the shield, and the size and type of the outer
casing.

Table 7.2 Categories of coaxial cables

Coaxial Cable Connectors
• The most common type of connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-
Concelman (BNC), connector.
• Figure 7.8 shows three popular types of these connectors: the BNC connector,
the BNC T connector, and the BNC terminator.
• The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device, such as
a TV set.
• The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out to a
connection to a computer or other device.
• The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of
the signal.
Figure 7.8 BNC connectors
Figure 7.9 Coaxial cable performance

We notice in Figure 7.9 that the attenuation is much higher in coaxial cables
than in twisted-pair cable. In other words, although coaxial cable has a much
higher bandwidth, the signal weakens rapidly and requires the frequent use of
repeaters.
APPLICATIONS

• Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a

single coaxial network could carry 10,000 voice signals.
• Later it was used in digital telephone networks where a single coaxial
cable could carry digital data up to 600 Mbps.
• Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables.
• In the traditional cable TV network, the entire network used coaxial
cable. Later, however, cable TV providers replaced most of the media
with fiber-optic cable; hybrid networks use coaxial cable only at the
network boundaries, near the consumer premises.
• Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable.
• Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet
LANs.
4. Power Lines
• The telephone and cable television networks are not the only sources of wiring
that can be reused for data communication.
• There is a yet more common kind of wiring: electrical power lines. Power lines
deliver electrical power to houses, and electrical wiring within houses distributes
the power to electrical outlets.
• The use of power lines for data communication is an old idea.
• Power lines have been used by electricity companies for low-rate communication
such as remote metering for many years, as well in the home to control devices.
• In recent years there has been renewed interest in high-rate communication over
these lines, both inside the home as a LAN and outside the home for broadband
Internet access.
• We will concentrate on the most common scenario: using electrical wires inside
the home.
• It is practical to send at least 100 Mbps over typical household electrical wiring
by using communication schemes that resist impaired frequencies and bursts of
errors.
Fig. A network that uses household electrical wiring.
5. Fiber-Optic Cable
• A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form
of light.
• Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform
substance.
• If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another
substance (of a different density), the ray changes direction.
• Figure 7.10 shows how a ray of light changes direction when going from a
more dense to a less dense substance.
• As the figure shows, if the angle of incidence I (the angle the ray makes with
the line perpendicular to the interface between the two substances) is less than
the critical angle, the ray refracts and moves closer to the surface.
• If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the light bends along the
interface.
• If the angle is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects (makes a turn)
and travels again in the denser substance.
• Note that the critical angle is a property of the substance, and its value differs
from one substance to another.
Figure 7.10 Bending of light ray
Figure 7.11 Optical fiber

• Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.

• A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass
or plastic.
• The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a
beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding
instead of being refracted into it.
Figure 7.12 Propagation modes
Applications

• Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide

bandwidth is cost-effective.
• Today, with wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), we can transfer data at
a rate of 1600 Gbps. The SONET network provides such a backbone.
• Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial cable,
thus creating a hybrid network.
• Optical fiber provides the backbone structure while coaxial cable provides the
connection to the user premises.
• This is a cost-effective configuration since the narrow bandwidth requirement
at the user end does not justify the use of optical fiber.
• Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and
1000Base-X also use fiber-optic cable.
Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
• Higher bandwidth
• Less signal attenuation.
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference.
• Resistance to corrosive materials.
• Light weight.
• Greater immunity to tapping.
Disdavantages
• Installation and maintenance – new experts needed
• Unidirectional light propagation.
• Cost.