Chapter 4

Mobile Radio Propagation:

Large-Scale Path Loss
Sections

4.1. Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation

4.2. Free Space Propagation Model
4.3. The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms
4.4. Outdoor Propagation Models
4.5. Indoor Propagation Models
4.6. Signal Penetration into Buildings
4.7. Ray Tracing and Site Specific Modeling
 4.1. Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation
The transmission path between the transmitter
and the receiver can vary from simple line-of-sight
to one that is severely obstructed by buildings,
mountains, and foliage.
radio channels are extremely random and do not
offer easy analysis.
Even the speed of motion impacts how rapidly the
signal level fades as a mobile terminal moves in
space.
Modeling the radio channel has historically been
one of the most difficult parts of mobile radio
system design.
Cont
…
electromagnetic wave propagation can
generally be attributed to reflection,
diffraction, and scattering.
Most cellular radio systems operate in
urban areas where there is no direct line-of-
sight path between the transmitter and the
receiver.
and where the presence of high rise
buildings causes severe diffraction loss.
Due to multiple reflections from various
objects, the electromagnetic waves travel
along different paths of varying lengths.
Cont
…
The interaction between waves causes
multipath fading at a specific location.
The strengths of the waves decrease as the
distance between the transmitter and receiver
increases.
Propagation models that predict the mean
signal strength for an arbitrary transmitter-
receiver (T-R) separation distance are useful
in estimating the radio coverage area of a
transmitter and are called large-scale
propagation models.
Cont
…

propagation models that characterize the

rapid fluctuations of the received signal
strength over very short travel distances (a
few wavelengths) or short time durations (on
the order of seconds) are called small-scale
fading models.
4.2 Free Space Propagation Model
The free space propagation model is used to
predict received signal strength when the
transmitter and receiver have a clear,
unobstructed line-of-sight path.
Satellite communication systems and
microwave line-of-sight radio links typically
undergo free space propagation.
the free space model predicts that received
power decays as a function of the T-R
separation distance raised to some power (i.e.
a power law function).
Cont…
 The free space power received by a receiver antenna which is
separated from a radiating transmitter antenna by a distance d,
is given by the Friis free space equation:

pt Gt Gr  2
pr ( d ) 
( 4 ) 2 d 2 L
 where p is the transmitted power,
t
pr(d) is the received power which is a function of the T-R
separation,
Gt is the transmitter antenna gain,
Gr is the receiver antenna gain,
d is the T-R separation distance in meters,
L is the system loss factor not related to propagation (L≥1 ) and
λ is the wavelength in meters.
Cont…
The gain of an antenna is related to its effective
aperture, Ae, by:
4Ae
G 

2

The effective aperture A is related to the

e
physical size of the antenna, and λ is related to
the carrier frequency by:
c 2c
 
f wc
where f is the carrier frequency in Hertz, w is
c
the carrier frequency in radians per second, and
c is the speed of light given in meters/s.
Cont
…
The values for pt and pr must be expressed in the
same units.
Gt and Gr are dimensionless quantities.
The miscellaneous losses L (L ≥1) are usually due
to transmission line attenuation, filter losses, and
antenna losses in the communication system.
A value of L = 1 indicates no loss in the system
hardware.
An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which
radiates power with unit gain uniformly in all
directions.
Cont
…
The path loss for the free space model when
antenna gains are included is given by:

pt  Gt Gr 2 
PL(dB)  10 log  10 log  2 2
pr  (4 ) d 
When antenna gains are excluded, the
antennas are assumed to have unity gain, and
path loss is given by:

pt   2

PL(dB)  10 log  10 log  2 2
pr  (4 ) d 
Cont
…
The Friis free space model is only a valid
predictor for pr for values of d which are in the
far-field of the transmitting antenna.
large-scale propagation models use a close-in
distance, d0, as a known received power
reference point.
the received power in free space at a distance
greater than d0 is given by:
2
 d0 
pr (d )  pr (d 0 )  , d  d 0
d 
Cont…
Because of the large dynamic range of
received power levels, often dBm or dBW
units are used to express received power
levels.
If pr is in units of dBm, the received power is
given by:
 pr ( d 0 )   d0 
pr (d )dBm  10 log    20 log , d  d 0
 0.001W  d 

where pr(d0) is in units of watts.

Cont…
An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna
which radiates power with unit gain
uniformly in all directions, and is often used
to reference antenna gains in wireless
systems.
The effective isotropic radiated power
(EIRP) is defined as:
EIRP = PtGt
Represents the maximum radiated power
available from a transmitter in the direction
of maximum antenna gain, as compared to an
isotropic radiator.
Cont…
Example:

If a transmitter produces 50 watts of power,

express the transmit power in units of (a)
dBm, and (b) dBW. If 50 watts is applied to a
unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz carrier
frequency, find the received power in dBm at
a free space distance of 100 m from the
antenna, What is Pr(10 km)? Assume unity
gain for the receiver antenna.
Cont…
 Solution:
4.3 The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms

1. Reflection
2. Diffraction
3. Scattering
 Reflection:
propagating electromagnetic wave impinges
upon an object which has very large
dimensions when compared to the
wavelength of the propagating wave.
from the surface of the earth and from
buildings and walls.
Cont…
Diffraction:
Occurs when the radio path between the
transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a
surface that has sharp irregularities (edges).
Scattering:
occurs when the medium through which the
wave travels consists of objects with dimensions
that are small compared to the wavelength.
where the number of obstacles per unit volume
is large.
Produced by rough surfaces, small objects, or
by other irregularities in the channel.
…
The actual received signal in a mobile radio
environment is often stronger than what is
predicted by reflection and diffraction models
alone.
This is because when a radio wave impinges on
a rough surface, the reflected energy is spread
out (diffused) in all directions due to scattering.
Both theoretical and measurement-based
propagation models indicate that average
received signal power decreases logarithmically
with distance, whether in outdoor or indoor radio
channels.
 4.4. Outdoor Propagation Models
Radio transmission often takes place over
irregular terrain.
The terrain profile of a particular area needs to
be taken into account for estimating the path
loss.
The terrain profile may vary from a simple
curved earth profile to a highly mountainous
profile.
The presence of trees, buildings, and other
obstacles also must be taken into account.
A number of propagation models are available
to predict path loss over irregular terrain.
Cont…
All models aim to predict signal strength at a
particular receiving point or in a specific local
area (called a sector).
The methods vary widely in their approach,
complexity, and accuracy.
Most of these models are based on a systematic
interpretation of measurement data obtained
in the service area.
 Okumura Model
One of the most widely used models for signal
prediction in urban areas.
Applicable for frequencies in the range 150 MHz to
1920 MHz and distances of 1 km to 100 km.
Used for base station antenna heights ranging from
30m to 1000m.
Okumura developed a set of curves giving the
median attenuation relative to free space (A mu), in an
urban area over a quasi-smooth terrain with a base
station effective antenna height (h te) of 200 m and a
mobile antenna height (hre) of 3 m.
Cont…
These curves were developed from extensive
measurements using vertical Omni-directional
antennas at both the base and mobile.
Plotted as a function of frequency in the range
100 MHz to 1920 MHz and as a function of
distance from the base station in the range 1 km
to 100 km.
To determine path loss, the free space path loss
between the points of interest is first determined,
and then the value of Amu(f, d) (as read from the
curves) is added to it along with correction factors
to account for the type of terrain.
Cont…
The model can be expressed as:

L50 (dB)  LF  Amu ( f , d )  G (hte )  G (hre )  G AREA

Where:
 L is the 50th percentile (i.e., median) value of
50
propagation path loss
 L is the free space propagation loss
F
 A is the median attenuation relative to free space
mu
G(h ) is the base station antenna height gain factor
te
G(h ) is the mobile antenna height gain factor
re
G
AREA is the gain due to the type of environment.
Cont…
Note that the antenna height gains are
strictly a function of height and have nothing
to do with antenna patterns.
The following figures show Plots of A mu(f, d)
and GAREA for a wide range of frequencies.
Cont…

Median attenuation relative to free space (Amu(f,d)), over a quasi-

smooth terrain
Cont…

Correction factor, GAREA, for different types of terrain

Cont…
Okumura found that G(hte) varies at a rate of
20 dB/decade and G(hre) varies at a rate of 10
dB/decade for heights less than 3 m.
Cont…
Okumura's model is considered to be among the
simplest and best in terms of accuracy in path
loss prediction for mature cellular and land
mobile radio systems in cluttered environments.
It is very practical and has become a standard
for system planning in modern land mobile radio
systems in Japan.
The major disadvantage with the model is its
slow response to rapid changes in terrain.
Therefore the model is fairly good in urban and
suburban areas, but not as good in rural areas.
Cont…
Common standard deviations between
predicted and measured path loss values are
around 10 dB to 14 dB.
Example:
Find the median path loss using Okumura's
model for d = 50 km, hte=100m, hre = 10 m in a
suburban environment. If the base station
transmitter radiates an EIRP of 1 kW at a
carrier frequency of 900 MHz, find the power
at the receiver (assume a unity gain receiving
antenna).
Cont
…
 Solution:
Cont
…
Hata Model
The Hata model is an empirical formulation of
the graphical path loss data provided by
Okumura.
Valid from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz
Hata presented the urban area propagation loss
as a standard formula and supplied correction
equations for application to other situations.
The standard formula for median path loss in
urban areas is given by:
L50 (urban)dB  69.55  26.16 log f c  13.82 log hte  a (hre )
 (44.9  6.55 log hte ) log d
 Cont…
Where:
f is the frequency (in MHz) from 150 MHz
c
to 1500 MHz
 h is the effective transmitter (base station)
te
antenna height (in meters) ranging from 30
m to 200 m
h is the effective receiver (mobile) antenna
re
height (in meters) ranging from 1 m to 10 m
d is the T-R separation distance (in km)
a(h ) is the correction factor for effective
re
mobile antenna height which is a function of
the size of the coverage area.
…
For a small to medium sized city, the mobile
antenna correction factor is given by:
a (hre )  (1.1 log f c  0.7)hre  (1.56 log f c  0.8)dB

for a large city is given by:

a (hre )  8.29(log 1.54hre ) 2  1.1dB, for , f c  300 MHz

a ( hre )  3.2(log11 .75hre ) 2  4.97dB, for , f c  300MHz

Cont
…
path loss in open rural areas is:

L50 (dB )  L50 (urban)  4.78(log f c ) 2  18.33 log f c  40.98

 4.5. Indoor Propagation Models
There is a great deal of interest in characterizing
radio propagation inside buildings.
The indoor radio channel differs from the
traditional mobile radio channel in two aspects:
 the distances covered are much smaller, and
 the variability of the environment is much
greater
It has been observed that propagation within
buildings is strongly influenced by specific
features such as the layout of the building, the
construction materials, and the building type.
Cont
…
signal levels vary greatly depending on whether
interior doors are open or closed inside a
building.
Where antennas are mounted also impacts large-
scale propagation
Antennas mounted at desk level in a partitioned
office receive vastly different signals than those
mounted on the ceiling.
The field of indoor radio propagation is
relatively new, with the first wave of research
occurring in the early 1980s.
In general, indoor channels may be classified
either as line-of-sight (LOS) or obstructed (OBS).
 4.6. Signal Penetration into Buildings
The signal strength received inside of a building due
to an external transmitter is important for wireless
systems.
signal strength received inside a building increases
with height.
At the lower floors of a building, the urban clutter
induces greater attenuation and reduces the level of
penetration.
At higher floors, a LOS path may exist, thus causing a
stronger incident signal at the exterior wall of the
building.
RF penetration has been found to be a function of
frequency as well as height within the building.
Cont
…
The antenna pattern in the elevation plane
also plays an important role in how much
signal penetrates a building from the outside.
penetration loss decreases with increasing
frequency.
 4.7. Ray Tracing and Site Specific
Modeling
In recent years, the computational and visualization
capabilities of computers have accelerated rapidly.
New methods for predicting radio signal coverage
involve the use of SIte SPecific (SISP) propagation
models and Geographical information system (GIS)
databases.
SISP models support ray tracing as a means of
deterministically modeling any indoor or outdoor
propagation environment.
Through the use of building databases, which may be
drawn or digitized using standard graphical software
packages, wireless system designers are able to include
accurate representations of building and terrain features.
Cont…
For outdoor propagation prediction:
 ray tracing techniques are used in conjunction
with aerial photographs so that three-
dimensional (3-D) representations of buildings
may be integrated with software that carries out
reflection, diffraction, and scattering models.
Photogrammetric techniques are used to convert
aerial or satellite photographs of cities into usable
3-D databases for the models.
In indoor environments, architectural drawings
provide a site specific representation for
propagation models.
Cont…
As building databases become prevalent,
wireless systems will be developed using
computer aided design tools that provide
deterministic, rather than statistical,
prediction models for large-scale path loss in a
wide range of operating environments.
Summary
Radio Wave Propagation
large-scale propagation models
free space propagation model
isotropic radiator
Basic Propagation Mechanisms
Outdoor Propagation Models
Okumura Model
Hata Model
Indoor Propagation Models
Signal Penetration into Buildings
Ray Tracing and Site Specific Modeling