RAIL WHEEL

INTERACTION
Contents

– The Wheel / Rail Interface and Key Terminology

– The Contact Patch and Contact Pressures
– Creep, Traction Forces and Friction
– Wheelset Geometry and Effective Conicity
 Back to basics…

• Tangent
• Curve
• Spiral
• High Rail
• Low Rail
• Superelevation
• Rail Cant

3
The Wheel / Rail
Interface Key
Terminology
Flange
Flange Face
Ancillary Root
Tread Back-to-Back
Wheel Spacing

Back of
Flange
Mid-Gage (BoF)
Ball / Crown / Top of Rail
(TOR) Gage Corner

Track Gage

Field Side Gage Side

4
 Contact Patch and Contact
Pressures

• Question #1: What is the length (area) of contact between a

circle (cylinder) and a tangent line (plane)?

• Question #2: Given Force and Area, how do we calculate

pressure?

• Question #3: If a circular body (~wheel) is brought into

contact with a linear body (~rail) with a verHcal force F and
zero contact area, what is the resulHng calculated pressure?

5
Hertzian
Contact
• Hertzian Contact (1882) describes the pressures, stresses and deformaHons
that occur when curved elasHc bodies are brought into contact.

• “Contact Patches” tend to be ellip/cal

• This yields parabolic contact pressures

Po=3/2Pavg

Pavg

• Contact theory was subsequently broadened to apply to rolling contact (Carter

and Fromm) with non-ellipHcal contact and arbitrary creepage (Kalker; more on
this later…)

6
Creepage, Friction and
Traction Forces

• Longitudinal Creepage
• The Traction-Creepage Curve
• Lateral Creepage
• Spin Creepage
• Friction at the Wheel-Rail Interface

7
 What does Longitudinal
C reepage
mean?...

• The fricHonal contact problem (Carter and Fromm, 1926) relates fricHonal forces
to velocity differences between bodies in rolling contact.

• Longitudinal Creepage can be calculated as: Rω-V

V

• In adhesion, 1% longitudinal creepage means that a wheel would turn 101 /mes
while traveling a distance of 100 circumferences.

• In braking, -1% longitudinal creepage means that a wheel would turn 99 /mes
while traveling a distance of 100 circumferences.

8
 “Free
Rolling
Wheel ”
Rω=V

Third ody Layer

B
Rail

9
“Small” Positive (Longitudinal)
Creepage

Wheel

Rω>V

Third Body Layer

Rail

10
“Large” Positive (Longitudinal) Creepage

Wheel

Rω>V

Third Body Layer

Rai
l

11
Traction-Creepage Curve
µN

Longitudinal
Creepage

Rolling
Microslip Direction
Adhesion

12
Lateral creepage
Imagine pushing a lawnmower across
a steep slope…

OK, but when does this

occur at the WRI?...

13
Steering in “Steady State” Curving
(“Mild” Curves)

Angle of
Amack
(AoA)

14
Steering in “Steady State” Curving
(“Sharp” Curves)

Angle of
Amack
(AoA)

15
Steering in “Steady State” Curving (“Very
Sharp” Curves)

Angle of
Amack
(AoA)

16
Spin Creepage
Think of spinning a coin on a
tabletop….

OK, but when

does this occur
at the WRI?...

17
Rolling vs. Sliding
Friction
They are not the
same!

creep:
μ: coefficient of (sliding) fricHon
Rω-V
ω (rotaHonal V
speed)
V
V R (radius)
N N
(normal load) (forward velocity)
(sliding velocity) (normal load)

f (fricHon force)
f (friction force)
≈ simply μN
= f(creep) ≠ simply μN
friction force shown as friction force shown as
acting on block for acting on wheel for
positive sliding velocity positive creep

18
Trac tion/C reepage
Curves

19
Vehicle Steering and Curving Forces

• The wheelset

20
Displaced wheel
set

λ = effecHve conicity
r0 = wheel radius of
undisplaced
wheelset
R = curve
radius
L0 = half
gauge

21
Theoretical Equilibrium

22
 Important
Concept:

• Sometimes, forces give rise to creepage (e.g. traction, braking, steering)

• Othertimes, creepage gives rise to forces (e.g. curving)

23
Effect of rolling radius difference on steering moment

24
Tangent Running and
Stability

• Lateral displacement
→ ΔR mismatch
→ fricHon forces
→ steering moment

• Wheelset passes through

central position with lateral forward
velocity.
velocity x
• At low speeds, oscillations
decay.
longitudinal
• Above critical hunting friction
speed, oscillations persist. y
forces
z

displacement

25
 Why study
this?

🞅 To increase train speeds

🞅 For heavy haul
🞅 Prevent undue wear – reduce costs
🞅 Safety, guidance and stability of
vehicle
🞅 Passenger comfort
🞅 Energy efficiency
🞅 Environment: emissions, noise,
particulates
Study
Paradigms

🞅 Adhesion and friction

🞅 Fatigue and failure
🞅 Material science
approach
🞅 Safety approach
Difficulties

🞅 A highly empirica l subject

🞅 Contact area ca nnot be directly
observed
🞅 Every passage is unique, has an effect
🞅 Continuously changing environment
🞅 Continuously changing geometries
🞅 Several factors out of control
🞅 Requires high-level computing
🞅 Many degrees of freedom
Difficulties
 Role of conicity + constant angular
velocity

🞅 Provides guidance on straight

tracks
🞅 At the cost of stability
🞅 But only solution for non-parallel
rails
🞅 Mechanism of motion
🞅 Gives rise to lateral oscillation
🞅 And hunting
🞅 Differential action on curved
tracks
🞅 Easy manufacturing by casting
Role of inside
flange

🞅 Final restraint on curves/unusuals

🞅 Gives guidance on curves
🞅 Stability through gravitational
stiffness
Gravitational Stiffness
Simplistic Derailment Model

Yawed Wheel – Two Points of

Contact
a – on tread
b – on
Simplistic Derailment Model
 Simplistic Derailment Model

🞅 Y = N sin  – F cos 
🞅 Q = N cos  + F sin 

Y N sin  – F
cos 
🞅   
Q N cos  + F
sin 
 Simplistic Derailment Model

Y N sin  – F
cos 
🞅   
Q N cos  + F
sin 
Dividing numerator and denominator
by cos 
Y N tan 
–F
🞅   
Q N +F
tan 
 Simplistic Derailment Model

Derailment occurs when Q is carried entirely by point

of contact on flange, Y will be least in this case. So,
 Simplistic Derailment Model

Y/Q is minimum when F is maximum, F ca nnot exceed

N, So

This is Nadal’s
Formula
 Nadal’s Formula

True when
🞅 Angle of attack is large
🞅 Large lateral force
🞅 Reduced vertica l load on wheel
🞅 Track with significa nt vertica l
irregularity
🞅 Or high degree of track twist
 Effects

🞅 Minimum coeff. of friction required for braking and acceleration =

0.2
🞅 Modern locos = higher coeff. of friction
🞅 Coeff. Of friction > 0.4 means moresurface fatigue of wheels and
rail
🞅 Less coeff. Of friction = more slide = sqeal and rail corrugation
🞅 Proper management can lead to 30% savings over natural
conditions
 Adhesion

🞅 Friction
🞅 Available to transfer tangential
force
🞅 Between driving wheel and rail.
🞅 Pushes the train forward
🞅 Is ca lled traction
🞅 Limited by coefficient of friction
🞅 If F > limit, wheel slip and rail
burn
 Friction Modification

🞅 Advantageous to control friction

🞅 To get high traction
🞅 Have moderate rolling resistance for braking
🞅 Reduce losses at flange contact to prevent rail-wheel
wear and energy losses
 Friction Modification

🞅 High friction at wheel tread/rail top contact for locomotives

🞅 Intermediate friction at wheel tread/rail top contact
especially for freighy ca rs
🞅 Low friction in wheel flange/rail gauge corner contact
🞅 We can use friction modifiers for this purpose
 Friction
Modifiers

🞅 Very high coefficient friction modifiers used to increase

adhesion both for braking and traction – use of sand
(>0.4)
🞅 High coefficient friction modifiers (0.2-0.4)for wheel
tread-top applications
🞅 Low coefficient friction modifiers (<0.1) for flange – gauge
corner interface (flane lubricators)
Low Coefficient
Modifiers

🞅 Solids, liquids or greases

🞅 Primarily to reduce friction, wear and seizure at
curves
🞅 Saves energy (upto 30%) on curves
🞅 Saves mateial from wear (upto 85%)
🞅 Brings down friction coefficient to less than 0.1
 Mechanism

🞅 Lubrica nt transports additives to intended zone

🞅 Additives react to form low shear coating
🞅 Coating reduces friction (low shear)
🞅 Coating prevents metal-to-metal contact (prevents
seizure and metal wear)
 Disadvantages

🞅 Over-lubrication- migration of lubricant to railtop- loss of adhesion

and traction
🞅 Over-lubrication- migration of lubricant to railtop- loss of
adhesion and increased braking distance – safety implication
🞅 Increase in crack growth at rail gauge corner by pressurization of
fluid as well as by preventing polishing of initial cracks
 High Friction
Modifiers

🞅 Liquid-borne particles
🞅 Applied by brush or spraying
🞅 Dry into a thin film that alters surface shear stress
🞅 Increase coeff. Of friction with increasing sliding
velocity
🞅 Prevents squeal and rail corrugation
🞅 Reduce wheel noise
Defect
s

🞅 Can affect rail insulation further affecting signalling (as in

track- circuiting)
🞅 Are effective for a limited number of wheel passages
Problem with
Sand

🞅 Sand is an abrasive
🞅 Reduces rail and wheel life by substantially increasing
wear rates
🞅 Alternate methods are Sandite blasting of tracks and
Washing with high pressure jets
🞅 Of limited use because of requirements of paths and special
trains
 Other HF
Modifiers

🞅 Raises coeff. of friction to 0.6

🞅 Solids with embedded active components in polymeric matrices
🞅 Applied directly to wheel tread
🞅 Active resin oxidises under high temperature of rail-wheel
contact and leaves thin dry film on wheel
🞅 Drawbacks same as that of high friction modifiers