Digital Transmission

Digital Transmission
▪ Methods to transmit data digitally

Line coding

Block coding

Sampling
▪ Transmission modes

Parallel

Serial
□
Synchronous
□
Asynchronous

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Digital Signals
▪ Digital – have a limited number of defined values Use
▪ binary (0s and 1s) to encode information Less affected
▪ by interference (noise); fewer errors

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4.1 Line Coding
▪ Process of converting binary data to a digital signal

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Line Coding Characteristics
▪ Signal Level versus Data Level
▪ Pulse Rate versus Bit Rate
▪ DC Components
▪ Self-Synchronization

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Signal Level versus Data Level
▪ Signal level – number of different values allowed in a signal
▪ Data level – number of symbols used to represent data

b.Three signal levels, two data levels

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Pulse Rate versus Bit Rate

▪ Pulse rate – defines number of pulses per second


Pulse – minimum amount of time required to transmit a
symbol
▪ Bit rate – defines number of bits per second

Bit rate = Pulse rate × log 2 L

When L is the number of data level of the signal

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Example 1
A signal has two data levels with a pulse duration of 1
ms. We calculate the pulse rate and bit rate as follows:

1
Pulse Rate = = 1000 pulses/s
1103

Bit Rate = Pulse Rate × log2 L

= 1000 × log2 2 = 1000 bps

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Example 2

A signal has four data levels with a pulse duration of 1

ms. We calculate the pulse rate and bit rate as follows:
1

Pulse Rate = 1103 = 1000 pulses/s

Bit Rate = Pulse Rate × log2 L

= 1000 × log2 4 = 2000 bps

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DC Components
▪ Residual direct-current (dc) components or zero
frequencies are undesirable

Some systems do not allow passage of a dc component
(such as a transformer); may distort the signal and
create output errors

DC component is extra energy residing on the line and
is useless

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DC Component

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Self-Synchronization
▪ Digital signal includes timing information in the data being
transmitted to prevent misinterpretation

Lack of synchronization

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Example 3

In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent

faster than the sender clock. How many extra bits per second
does the receiver receive if the data rate is 1 Kbps? How
many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?

Solution
At 1 Kbps:
1000 bits sent ➔1001 bits received➔1 extra bps
At 1 Mbps:
1,000,000 bits sent ➔1,001,000 bits received➔1000 extra bps
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Line Coding Schemes

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Unipolar
▪ Simplest method; inexpensive
▪ Uses only one voltage level
▪ Polarity (+ or -) is usually assigned to binary 1; a
0 is represented by zero voltage

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Polar
▪ Uses two voltage levels, one positive and one
negative
▪ Alleviates DC component
▪ Variations

Nonreturn to zero (NRZ)

Return to zero (RZ)

Manchester

Differential Manchester

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Nonreturn to Zero (NRZ)
▪ Value of signal is always positive or negative
▪ NRZ-L (NRZ-Level)

Signal level depends on bit represented; positive
usually means 0, negative usually means 1

Problem : synchronization of long streams of 0s or 1s
▪ NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert)

Inversion of voltage represents a 1 bit 0

bit represented by no change Allows for

synchronization

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NRZ-L and NRZ-I Encoding

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Return to Zero (RZ)
▪ In NRZ-I, long strings of 0s may still be a problem
▪ May include synchronization as part of the signal for
both 1s and 0s
▪ How?

Must include a signal change during each bit Uses

three values: positive, negative, and zero 1 bit

represented by positive-to-zero

0 bit represented by negative-to-zero

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RZ Encoding

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RZ Encoding
▪ Disadvantage

Requires two signal changes to encode each bit;
more bandwidth necessary

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Manchester
▪ Uses an inversion at the middle of each bit
interval for both synchronization and bit
representation
▪ Negative-to-positive represents binary 1
▪ Positive-to-negative represents binary 0
▪ Achieves same level of synchronization with only
two levels of amplitude

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Manchester Encoding

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Differential Manchester
▪ Inversion at middle of bit interval is used for
synchronization
▪ Presence or absence of additional transition at
beginning of interval identifies the bit
▪ Transition means binary 0; no transition means 1
▪ Requires two signal changes to represent binary 0
but only one to represent 1

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Differential Manchester

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Bipolar Encoding
▪ Uses three voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero
▪ Zero level represents binary 0; 1s are represented with
alternating positive and negative voltages, even when
the 1 bits are not consecutive
▪ Two schemes


Alternate mark inversion (AMI)

Bipolar n-zero substitution (BnZS)

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Bipolar AMI
▪ Neutral, zero voltage represents binary 0
▪ Binary 1s represented by alternating positive and negative
voltages

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Bipolar n-zero substitution (BnZS)
▪ Solves problem of synchronizing sequential 0s,
often occurring in long-distance transmission
▪ If n consecutive zeros occur, some of the bits in
those n bits become positive or negative
▪ Substitution violates rules of AMI in a manner that
receiver knows the bits are actually 0s and not 1s

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Other Schemes
▪ 2B1Q (two binary, one quaternary) uses four
voltage levels

One pulse can represent 2 bits; more efficient

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Other Schemes
▪ MLT-3 (multi-line transmission, three level) – similar to
NRZ-I using three levels of signals; signal transitions occur at
beginning of 1 bit, no transition at beginning of 0

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 Block Coding
▪ Coding method to ensure synchronization and
detection of errors
▪ Three steps: division, substitution, and line
coding

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Steps in Transformation

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

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Transformation Steps
▪ Step 1: bit stream is divided into groups of m bits
▪ Step 2: substitute an m-bit code for an n-bit group

Codes with no more than three consecutive 0s or 1s are
used to achieve synchronization

Since only a subset of blocks are used, if one or
more bits are changed and an invalid code is
received, a receiver can easily detect the error
▪ Step 3: line encoding scheme is then used to
create the signal

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Common Block Codes
▪ 4B/5B – every 4 bits of data is encoded into a 5- bit
code; NRZ-1 is usually used for line coding
▪ 8B/10B – group of 8 bits of data is substituted by a
10-bit code
▪ 8B/6T – each 8-bit group is substituted with a six-
symbol code; uses less bandwidth since three signal
levels may be used

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Figure 4.16 Substitution in block coding

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Table 4.1 4B/5B encoding

Data Code Data Code

0000 11110 1000 10010

0001 01001 1001 10011
0010 10100 1010 10110
0011 10101 1011 10111
0100 01010 1100 11010
0101 01011 1101 11011
0110 01110 1110 11100
0111 01111 1111 11101

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Table 4.1 4B/5B encoding (Continued)

Data Code
Q (Quiet) 00000
I (Idle) 11111
H (Halt) 00100
J (start delimiter) 11000
K (start delimiter) 10001
T (end delimiter) 01101
S (Set) 11001
R (Reset) 00111

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Figure 4.17 Example of 8B/6T encoding

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4.3 Sampling
▪ Analog data must often be converted to digital
format (ex: long-distance services, audio)
▪ Sampling is process of obtaining amplitudes of a
signal at regular intervals

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Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
▪ Analog signal’s amplitude is sampled at regular intervals;
result is a series of pulses based on the sampled data
▪ Pulse Coded Modulation (PCM) is then used to make the
signal digital

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 Note:

Pulse amplitude modulation has some

applications, but it is not used by
itself in data communication.
However, it is the first step in another
very popular conversion method
called
pulse code modulation.
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Pulse Coded Modulation (PCM)
▪ First quantizes PAM pulses; an integral value in a
specific range to sampled instances is assigned
▪ Each value is then translated to its 7-bit binary
equivalent
▪ Binary digits are transformed into a digital signal
using line coding

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Figure 4.19 Quantized PAM signal

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Figure 4.20 Quantizing by using sign and magnitude

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Figure 4.21 PCM

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Digitization of an Analog Signal

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Sampling Rate: Nyquist Theorem
▪ Accuracy of digital reproduction of a signal
depends on number of samples
▪ Nyquist theorem: number of samples needed to
adequately represent an analog signal is equal to
twice the highest frequency of the original signal

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 Note:

According to the Nyquist theorem, the

sampling rate must be at least 2 times
the highest frequency.

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Figure 4.23 Nyquist theorem

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 Note:

Note that we can always change a

band-pass signal to a low-pass signal
before sampling. In this case, the
sampling rate is twice the bandwidth.

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Example 4
What sampling rate is needed for a signal with a
bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz)?

Solution
The sampling rate must be twice the highest frequency in
the signal:

Sampling rate = 2 x (11,000) = 22,000 samples/s

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Example 5 (How many bit per sample)
A signal is sampled. Each sample requires at least 12 levels of
precision (+0 to +5 and -0 to -5). How many bits should be
sent for each sample?

Solution
We need 4 bits; 1 bit for the sign and 3 bits for the value. A 3-
bit value can represent 23 = 8 levels (000 to 111), which is
more than what we need. A 2-bit value is not enough since 22
= 4. A 4-bit value is too much because 24 = 16.

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Example 6 (Bit rate)
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate,
assuming 8 bits per sample?

Solution

The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to

4000 Hz.
Sampling rate = 4000 x 2 = 8000 samples/s

Bit rate = sampling rate x number of bits per sample

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4.4 Transmission Mode

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Parallel Transmission
▪ Bits in a group are sent simultaneously, each using a
separate link
▪ n wires are used to send n bits at one time
▪ Advantage: speed
▪ Disadvantage: cost; limited to short distances

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Serial Transmission
▪ Transmission of data one bit at a time using only one
single link
▪ Advantage: reduced cost
▪ Disadvantage: requires conversion devices
▪ Methods:

Asynchronous

Synchronous

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Asynchronous Transmission
▪ Transfer of data with start and stop bits and a
variable time interval between data units
▪ Timing is unimportant
▪ Start bit alerts receiver that new group of data is
arriving
▪ Stop bit alerts receiver that byte is finished
▪ Synchronization achieved through start/stop bits
with each byte received

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Asynchronous Transmission

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Asynchronous Transmission
▪ Requires additional overhead (start/stop bits)
▪ Slower
▪ Cheap and effective
▪ Ideal for low-speed communication when gaps
may occur during transmission (ex: keyboard)

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Synchronous Transmission

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Synchronous Transmission
▪ Requires constant timing relationship
▪ Bit stream is combined into longer frames,
possibly containing multiple bytes
▪ Any gaps between bursts are filled in with a
special sequence of 0s and 1s indicating idle
▪ Advantage: speed, no gaps or extra bits
▪ Byte synchronization accomplished by data link
layer

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