WOLKITE UNIVERSITY

College of Computing & Informatics

Department of Computer Science

Regular Program

Automata and Complexity Theory (CoSc3101)

Chapter Four
Pushdown automata (PDA)

By: Sisay T. (MSc.)

 outline
• Pushdown automata
‒ Instantaneous Description of PDA
‒ Construction of PDA

• Non-deterministic pushdown automata

• Deterministic push down automata
• Pushdown automata context free languages

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 2

3
4
 Initial Stack Symbol

Stack Stack

stack
$ z top
head

bottom special symbol

Appears at time 0
5
 Pushdown Automaton -- PDA
Input String

Stack

States

6
 The States

Input Pop Push

symbol symbol symbol

q1 a, b  c q2

7
 a, b  c
q1 q2

input
a a

stack
b top Replac c
h e h
e e
$ $
8
 a,   c
q1 q2

input
a a

stack c
b top Pus
b
h h h
e e
$ $
9
 a,   
q1 q2

input
a a

stack
b top No b
h Change h
e e
$ $
10
 a, b  
q1 q2

input
a a

stack
b top
h Pop h
e e
$ $ 11
 Pop from Empty Stack
a, b  c
q1 q2
input
a
stack Pop Automaton halts!

top

If the automaton attempts to pop from

empty stack then it halts and rejects input

12
 Formal Definition
Pushdown Automaton (PDA) is described by 7-tuples

M  (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q0 , z , F ) Accept
states
States

Input Stack
alphabet Transition Initial start
Stack
function state symbol
alphabet
13
Transition function()

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 14

 Instantaneous description of PDA
• Let PDA M =(Q, Σ, Γ, δ,q0,Z0,F), then its configuration at a given instant
can be defined by instantaneous description (ID)
• ID is an informal notation of how a PDA “computes” an input string
and make a decision that string is accepted or rejected.
• An instantaneous description is a triple (q, w, α) where:
 q describes the current state.
 w describes the remaining input.
 α describes the stack contents, top at the left.
• Turnstile Notation:
⊢ (turnstile) notation, represents relation b/n two consecutive IDs.
⊢* sign describes a sequence of moves.
ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 15
ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 16
ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 17
Example-2: A computation of the string "aaabbb" by the PDA
accepting a language {anbn | n>=1}.

(q0 , aaabbb,$) (q1, aaabbb,$) 

(q1, aabbb, a$) (q1, abbb, aa$) (q1, bbb, aaa$) 
(q2 , bb, aa$) (q2 , b, a$) (q2 ,  ,$) (q3 ,  ,$)
a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
18
(q0 , aaabbb,$)  (q1 , aaabbb,$) 
(q1 , aabbb, a$)  (q1 , abbb, aa$)  (q1 , bbb, aaa$) 
(q2 , bb, aa$)  (q2 , b, a$)  (q2 ,  ,$)  (q3 ,  ,$)

For convenience we write: (q0 , aaabbb,$)  (q3 ,  ,$)

Therefore, the string aaabbb is accepted by the given PDA

19
Rejection Example: Time 0
Input
a a b
$
Stack

current a,   a b, a  
state

q0  ,    q b, a   q  , $  $ q
1 2 3
20
Rejection Example: Time 1
Input
a a b
$
Stack

current a,   a b, a  
state
 ,    q b, a   q  , $  $ q
q0 1 2 3
21
Rejection Example: Time 2
Input
a
a a b
$
Stack

current a,   a b, a  
state

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
22
Rejection Example: Time 3
Input a
a
a a b
$
Stack

current a,   a b, a  
state

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
23
Rejection Example: Time 4
Input a
a
a a b
$
Stack

current a,   a b, a  
state

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
24
Rejection Example: Time 5
Input a
a
a a b
$
Stack
reject
current a,   a b, a  
state

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
25
There is no accepting computation for aab
The string aab is rejected by the PDA

a,   a b, a  

q0  ,    q1 b, a   q2  , $  $ q3
26
 Another PDA example


PDA M: L( M )  {vv : v  {a, b} }
R

a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0
,    q1 , $  $ q2

27
 
Basic Idea: L( M )  {vv : v  {a, b} }
R

1. Push v 2. Guess 3. Match v R on input

on to the middle with v on stack
stack [pop v from the stack]
of input

4. Match
a,   a a, a  
found
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
28
Execution Example: Time 0
Input
a b b a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
29
 Time 1
Input
a b b a
a
$

Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
30
 Time 2
Input
b
a b b a
a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
31
 Time 3
Input
b
a b b a
Guess the middle a
of string $
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
32
 Time 4
Input
b
a b b a
a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
33
 Time 5
Input
a b b a
a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
34
 Time 6
Input
a b b a
$
Stack
a,   a
a, a  
b,   b
b, b  
accept
q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
35
Rejection Example: Time 0
Input
a b b b
$
Stack

a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
36
 Time 1
Input
a b b b
a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
37
 Time 2
Input
b
a b b b
a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
38
 Time 3
Input
b
a b b b
Guess the middle a
of string $
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
39
 Time 4
Input
b
a b b b
a
$
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
40
 Time 5
Input There is no possible transition.

a b b b Input is not a
consumed $
Stack
a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
41
 There is no computation
that accepts string abbb

abbb  L(M )

a,   a a, a  
b,   b b, b  

q0 ,    q1 , $  $ q2
42
 Language of PDA

Language L(M ) accepted by PDA M :


L( M )  {w : ( q0 , w, z )  ( q f ,  ,$)}

Initial state Accept state

• Given a PDA, P and a string w, P accepts w iff there is some series of

choices such that when P is run on w, it ends in a final state and
have an empty stack.

43
 Construction of PDA
• Examle 1 : Design a PDA that accepts the language L = {a nb n | n ≥ 0}
Solution:
• Every time ‘a’ comes before ‘b’. When ‘a’ comes then push it in stack and if again
‘a’ comes then also push it.
• After that, when ‘b’ comes then pop one ‘a’ from the stack each time.
• So, at the end if the stack becomes empty then we can say that the string is
accepted by the PDA.

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 44

 How can we use a stack to recognize w ∈ L
1. Push a special bottom of stack symbol $ to the stack
2. As long as you are seeing a’s in the input, push an a onto the stack.
3. While there are b’s in the input and there is a corresponding a on the
top of the stack, pop a from the stack
3.1. If at any point there is no a on the stack (hence you encounter $), you
should reject the string – not enough a’s!
3.2. If at the end of w, the top of the stack is NOT $ reject the string – not
enough b’s.
4. Otherwise accept the string.

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 45

PDA that accepts the language L = {a nb n | n ≥ 0}

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 46

 Examle 2 :
• Construct a PDA for L = {wwR | w ∈ {0, 1} ∗} , where wR is the reverse
of string w.
Solution
• The PDA works by marking the first half of the string on the stack and
then verifying that the second half matches the reversed first half.
• If the process completes successfully, the PDA enters the accepting
state; otherwise, it enters the rejecting state.

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 47

PDA for L = {wwR | w ∈ {0, 1} ∗} operates as follows

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 48

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 49
 Exercise 1
• Construct a PDA that accepts the language = {anbbban| n ≥ 1}
A. Show that the cceptability of aabbbaa using ID
B. Show that the rejection of aabbba using ID

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 50

 Exercise 2
1. Design a PDA that accepts the language L = {anbm cn| n,m ≥ 1}
2. Obtain a PDA to accept the language L= {anb2n| n ≥ 1}
A. Show that the cceptability of aabbbb
B. Show that the rejection of aabbb

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 51

 Non-deterministic pushdown automata
• A Non-deterministic Pushdown Automaton (NPDA) is a variation of the
Pushdown Automaton (PDA) that allows for non-deterministic transitions.
• In an NPDA, the transition function can lead to multiple possible next
configurations for a given combination of current state, input symbol, and
stack symbol.
• This non-determinism introduces branches in the computation, allowing
the NPDA to explore multiple paths simultaneously.

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 52

 Con’t...
• NPDA is more powerful than a deterministic PDA in terms of
language recognition capabilities
• In this respect, the situation is not similar to the situation of
DFA-s and NFA-s.
• An NPDA accepts an input string if there exists at least one
computation path (sequence of transitions) that leads to an
accepting state and an empty stack.
• Nondeterministic PDA-s are equivalent to CFL-s.
ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 53
 Formal Definition of NPDA
PDA, M = (Q,Σ,Γ,δ,q0,Z0,F) is defined by the 7-tuple, where:
 Q : set of states
 Σ : input alphabet
 Γ : stack alphabet, Symbols that can be pushed and popped
 δ : Q×Σ U{ε}×Γ U {ε}→ 2Q× Γ U {ε} , Transition function
 q0∈ Q : start state
 Z0​: Initial stack symbol
 F⊆ Q : final states

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 54

 Examples of NPDA
1. L={wwR|w)*}
2. L={wXwR|w)*,X=(a,b)}

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 55

 Deterministic pushdown automata

• A deterministic pushdown automaton has at most one legal

transition for the same combination of input symbol, state, and top
stack symbol.
• This is where it differs from the nondeterministic pushdown automaton.

• Deterministic PDAs are of great practical importance, but not of particularly

great theoretical importance.

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 56

 DPDA Con’t...
• A PDA (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q0, Z0, F) is deterministic if:
 δ(q, a, X) has at most one member for any q in Q, a in Σ ∪ {ε} and X in Γ.
 If δ(q, a, X) is nonempty for some a in Σ, then δ(q, ε, X) must be empty.
• A language that can be recognized by a DPDA is called a deterministic
context-free language.
• A PDA can recognize { wwR | w is any string of a's and b's }, but no
DPDA can recognize this language.
• Since a DPDA can recognize the non-regular language { wcwR | w is
any string of a's and b's }, DPDA are strictly more powerful than finite
automata

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 57

 Examples of DPDA
1. L={ancan|n>=1}
2. L={anbn|n>=1}
3. L={anbm|n }
4. L={wcwR|w)*}

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 58

 Difference between NPDA and DPDA
S. No DPDA(Deterministic Pushdown Automata) NPDA(Non-deterministic Pushdown
Automata)

1. It is less powerful than NPDA. It is more powerful than DPDA.

It is possible to convert every DPDA to a It is not possible to convert every

2. corresponding NPDA. NPDA to a corresponding DPDA.

The language accepted by DPDA is a subset of the The language accepted by NPDA is not
3. language accepted by NDPA. a subset of the language accepted by
DPDA.

The language accepted by DPDA is called The language accepted by NPDA is

4. DCFL(Deterministic Context-free Language) which is called NCFL(Non-deterministic Context-
a subset of NCFL(Non-deterministic Context-free free Language
Language) accepted by NPDA.

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 59

 Pushdown automata context free languages

• We can prove that PDAs accept exactly the context free languages by showing
that we can convert any CFG into a PDA and any PDA into a CFG

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 60

 CFG to PDA Conversion
The following steps are used to obtain PDA from CFG is:
Step 1: Convert the given productions of CFG into GNF.
Step 2: The PDA will only have one state {q}.
Step 3: The initial symbol of CFG will be the initial symbol in the PDA.
Step 4: For non-terminal symbol, add the following rule: δ(q, ε, A) = (q, α)
Where the production rule is A → α
Step 5: For each terminal symbols, add the following rule:
δ(q, a, a) = (q, ε) for every terminal symbol

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 61

 Example 1:
• Convert the following grammar to a PDA that accepts the same
language.
1.S → 0S1 | A
2.A → 1A0 | S | ε
Solution:
• The CFG can be first simplified by eliminating unit productions:
S → 0S1 | 1S0 | ε
• Now we will convert this CFG to GNF:
1.S → 0SX | 1SY | ε
2.X → 1
3.Y → 0

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 62

 Con’t...
The PDA can be:
R1: δ(q, ε, S) = {(q, 0SX) | (q, 1SY) | (q, ε)}
R2: δ(q, ε, X) = {(q, 1)}
R3: δ(q, ε, Y) = {(q, 0)}
R4: δ(q, 0, 0) = {(q, ε)}
R5: δ(q, 1, 1) = {(q, ε)}

ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 63

 Example 2:
• Construct PDA for the given CFG, and test whether 010 4 is acceptable
by this PDA.
1.S → 0BB
2.B → 0S | 1S | 0
• Solution:
• The PDA can be given as:
A = {(q), (0, 1), (S, B, 0, 1), δ, q, S, ?}
• The production rule δ can be:
R1: δ(q, ε, S) = {(q, 0BB)}
R2: δ(q, ε, B) = {(q, 0S) | (q, 1S) | (q, 0)}
R3: δ(q, 0, 0) = {(q, ε)}
R4: δ(q, 1, 1) = {(q, ε)}
ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 64
 Testing 0104 , i.e. 010000 against PDA:
δ(q, 010000, S) ⊢ δ(q, 010000, 0BB)
⊢ δ(q, 10000, BB) R1
⊢ δ(q, 10000,1SB) R3
⊢ δ(q, 0000, SB) R2
⊢ δ(q, 0000, 0BBB) R1
⊢ δ(q, 000, BBB) R3
⊢ δ(q, 000, 0BB) R2
⊢ δ(q, 00, BB) R3
⊢ δ(q, 00, 0B) R2
⊢ δ(q, 0, B) R3
⊢ δ(q, 0, 0) R2
⊢ δ(q, ε) R3
ACCEPT
ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 65
 D!
E N
H E
T
ACT CH-3: Context Free Languages 66