Relational Model

 Introduction
 Basic concepts
 Relation
 Attribute
 Key
 Integrity constraint
 Database
 Relational data manipulation
languages
 Relational Algebra
 Basic operators
 Additional operators
 Extended operations
 Views and Snapshots
 Tuple Relational Calculus
 Domain Relational Calculus
3.1
Introduction to Relational Model

 Introduced by E.F. Codd in 1970

 Relational DBMS systems include Oracle, DB2,
Sybase, Informix.
 Main Characteristics:
 Database is perceived as a set of tables
 Query results are also tables
 Main advantages:
 Simple
 With solid math base
 Relational model:
 Database structure: the database is represented by
tables
 Integrity constraints: the tables satisfy certain
constraints
 Data manipulation: operators are available for data
manipulation

3.2
 Relation
 Informally, a relation is a table; a tuple corresponds to
a row of such a table and an attribute to a column; the
number of tuples is called the cardinality and the
number of attributes is called the degree. Order of
tuples is irrelevant (tuples may be stored in an
arbitrary order); duplicate tuples are not allowed in a
relation.
 Formally, given sets D1, D2, …. Dn a relation r is a
subset of
D1 x D2 x … x Dn attributes
Thus a relation is a set of n-tuples (a1, a2, …, an) where
customer-name
customer-streetcustomer-city
ai  Di
Jones Main Harrison
 Example: Smith North Rye tuples
Curry North Rye
Lindsay Park Pittsfield

3.3
 Attribute
 Each attribute of a relation has a name
 The set of allowed values for each attribute is called
the domain of the attribute. A domain is a data type,
which is a set of values associated with operators. E.g.,
the type INTEGER is the set of all integers with
operators +,-,*,/, etc. Data types can be system-defined
or user-defined.
 Attribute values are (normally) required to be atomic,
that is, indivisible
 E.g. multivalued attribute values are not atomic
 E.g. composite attribute values are not atomic
 The special value null is a member of every domain if
allowed
 The null value causes complications in the definition of
many operations
 we shall ignore the effect of null values in our main
presentation and consider their effect later

3.4
 Relation Schema and Instance

 Let A1, A2, …, An be the attributes of a

relation. Then
R = (A1, A2, …, An ) is the relation schema
E.g. Customer-schema =
(customer-name, customer-street, customer-
city)
The current value of the relation is the
relation instance (specified by a table)

3.5
 Keys (1)
Let R be a relation schema, r(R) be any relation on R,
and K  R
 K is a superkey of R if values for K are sufficient to
identify a unique tuple of each possible relation r(R).
By “possible r” we mean a relation r that could exist
in the enterprise we are modeling.
Example: {customer-name, customer-street} and
{customer-name}
are both superkeys of Customer, if no two
customers can possibly have the same name.
 K is a candidate key if K is minimal superkey
Example: {customer-name} is a candidate key for
Customer, since it is a superkey (assuming no two
customers can possibly have the same name), and
no subset of it is a superkey.

3.6
 Keys (2)
 A primary key is a candidate key which is chosen by
the database designer as the principal means of
identifying tuples within a relation; the other
candidate keys are called alternate keys.
 A foreign key K is a set of attributes of one relation
R1 whose values are required to match values of
some candidate key of another relation R2. K is
used in R1 for referencing R2.

3.7
 Integrity Constraints
Integrity constraints are used to ensure the correctness
of the data
 Type constraint: specify the legal values of a type
 Attribute constraint: declare that a specific attribute
is of a specific type
 Not-Null constraint: null value is not allowed for an
attribute if so specified
 Entity constraints: no primary key value can be null.
 Key constraints: all tuples in a relation are distinct.
 Referential integrity constraints: ensure that a value
of a foreign key in relation R1 also appears in the
corresponding candidate key of the referenced
relation R2 (or null)
 Some other constraints will be discussed later

3.8
 Database (1)
 A database consists of relations and integrity constraints
 Information about an enterprise is broken up into parts,
with each relation storing one part of the information

E.g.: account : stores information about accounts

depositor : stores information about which
customer
owns which account
customer : stores information about customers
 Relational schemas should be carefully designed
 E.g. Storing all information as a single relation such as
bank(account-number, balance, customer-name, ..)
results in
 repetition of information (e.g. two customers own an
account)
 the need for null values (e.g. represent a customer without
an account)
 Normalization theory (discuss later ) deals with how to
design relational schemas
 Basic operations of insert, delete, and update may violate
constraints.
3.9
 Database (2)

 The schema (conceptual model) of a database

consists of the schemas of the relations in the
database
 The instance of a database is the current
values (instances) of the relations in the
database
 Any relation that is not of the conceptual
model but is made visible to a user as a
“virtual relation” is called a view. Any relation
that is not of the conceptual model but is
made visible to a user to reflect the status of
the database at the moment when the relation
is created is called a snapshot.

3.10
E-R Diagram for the Banking
Enterprise

3.11
Schema Diagram for the Banking
Enterprise

3.12
 Relational Data Manipulation
Languages
 Abstract (Mathematical) languages
a) Relational Algebra --- procedural
b) Tuple Relational Calculus --- nonprocedural
c) Domain Relational Calculus --- nonprocedural
 The three languages are equivalent, I.e., they have
same expressing power
 Commercial languages
 SQL --- Structured (Standard) Query Language; based
on (a)(b)(c)
 QBE --- Query By Example; based on (c)
 QUEL --- Query Language; based on (b)
 ISBL --- Information System Base Language; based on
(a)
 ….

3.13
 Relational Algebra
 Basically, the relational algebra is a set of operators
that take relations as their operands and return a
relation as their result.
 Six basic operators
 Select (called “Restrict” in the textbook)
 project
 union
 set difference
 Cartesian product
 rename
 The operators take two or more relations as inputs
and give a new relation as a result.

3.14
 Select Operation – Example

• Relation r A B C D

  1 7
  5 7
  12 3
  23 10

A=B ^ D > 5 (r)

A B C D

  1 7
  23 10

3.15
 Select Operation

 Notation:  p(r)
 p is called the selection predicate
 Defined as:
p(r) = {t | t  r and p(t)}
Where p is a formula in propositional calculus
consisting of terms connected by :  (and),  (or), 
(not)
Each term is one of:
<attribute>op <attribute> or <constant>
where op is one of: =, , >, . <. 
 Example of selection:
 branch-name=“Perryridge”(account)
 Important properties.

3.16
 Project Operation – Example

 Relation r: A B C

 10 1
 20 1
 30 1
 40 2

 A,C (r) A C A C

 1  1
 1 =  1
 1  2
 2

3.17
 Project Operation
 Notation:

A1, A2, …, Ak (r)

where A1, A2 are attribute names and r is a relation
name.
 The result is defined as the relation of k columns
obtained by erasing the columns that are not listed
 Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations
are sets
 E.g. To eliminate the branch-name attribute of
account
account-number, balance (account)
 Important properties.

3.18
 Union Operation – Example
 Relations r, s:
A B A B

 1  2
 2  3
 1 s
r

 r  s:
A B

 1
 2
 1
 3

3.19
 Union Operation
 Notation: r  s
 Defined as:

r  s = {t | t  r or t  s}

 For r  s to be valid.

1. r, s must have the same arity (same number of

attributes)
2. The attribute domains must be compatible (e.g., 2nd
column
of r deals with the same type of values as does the 2nd

column of s)
 E.g. to find all customers with either an account or a loan
customer-name (depositor)  customer-name (borrower)
 Properties.

3.20
 Set Difference Operation –
Example
 Relations r, s:
A B A B

 1  2
 2  3
 1 s
r

r – s:
A B

 1
 1

3.21
 Set Difference Operation
 Notation r – s
 Defined as:

r – s = {t | t  r and t  s}
 Set differences must be taken between compatible
relations.
 r and s must have the same arity
 attribute domains of r and s must be compatible
 Property.

3.22
 Cartesian-Product Operation-
Example

Relations r, s: A B C D E

 1  10 a
 10 a
 2  20 b
r  10 b
s
r x s:
A B C D E
 1  10 a
 1  10 a
 1  20 b
 1  10 b
 2  10 a
 2  10 a
 2  20 b
 2  10 b

3.23
 Cartesian-Product Operation
 Notation r x s
 Defined as:

r x s = {t q | t  r and q  s}
 Assume that attributes of r(R) and s(S) are disjoint.
(That is,
R  S = ).
 If attributes of r(R) and s(S) are not disjoint, then
renaming must be used.

3.24
 Rename Operation
 Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the
results of relational-algebra expressions.
 Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one
name.
Example:
 x (E )
returns the expression E under the name X
If a relational-algebra expression E has arity n, then
x (A1, A2, …, An) (E)
returns the result of expression E under the name X,
and with the
attributes renamed to A1, A2, …., An.

3.25
 Composition of Operations
 Can build expressions using multiple operations
 Example: A=C(r x s)
 rxs A B C D E
 1  10 a
 1  19 a
 1  20 b
 1  10 b
 2  10 a
 2  10 a
 2  20 b
 2  10 b

A=C(r x s)
A B C D E
 1  10 a
 2  20 a
 2  20 b
3.26
 Expressions
 A basic expression in the relational algebra consists
of either one of the following:
 A relation in the database
 A constant relation
 Let E and E be relational-algebra expressions; the
1 2
following are all relational-algebra expressions:
 E1  E2
 E1 - E2
 E1 x E2
 p (E1), P is a predicate on attributes in E1
 s(E1), S is a list consisting of some of the attributes in
E1
  x (E1), x is the new name for the result of E1

3.27
 Banking Example

branch (branch-name, branch-city, assets)

customer (customer-name, customer-street,

customer-only)

account (account-number, branch-name,

balance)

loan (loan-number, branch-name, amount)

depositor (customer-name, account-number)

borrower (customer-name, loan-number)

3.28
 Example Queries

 Find all loans of over $1200

amount > 1200 (loan)

 Find the loan number for each loan of an amount
greater than $1200
loan-number (amount > 1200 (loan))

3.29
 Example Queries

 Find the names of all customers who have a loan, an

account, or both, from the bank
customer-name (borrower)  customer-name (depositor)
 Find the names of all customers who have a loan
and an account at bank.
customer-name (borrower)  customer-name (depositor)

3.30
 Example Queries
 Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the
Perryridge branch.

customer-name (branch-name=“Perryridge”
(borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number(borrower x loan)))
 Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the
Perryridge branch but do not have an account at any branch
of the bank.

customer-name (branch-name = “Perryridge”

(borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number(borrower x
loan)))

– customer-name(depositor)

3.31
 Example Queries
 Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the
Perryridge branch.
 Query 1
customer-name(branch-name = “Perryridge”
(borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number(borrower x
loan)))
 Query 2
customer-name(loan.loan-number = borrower.loan-number(
(branch-name = “Perryridge”(loan)) x

borrower)
)

3.32
 Example Queries
Find the largest account balance
 Rename account relation as d
 The query is:

balance(account) - account.balance
(account.balance < d.balance (account x d
(account)))

3.33
 Additional Operators
We define additional operators that do not add any
power to the relational algebra, but that simplify
common queries. That’s to say, the additional
operators can be expressed by the six basic operators

 Set intersection
 Natural join
 Division
 Assignment

3.34
 Set-Intersection Operation
 Notation: r  s
 Defined as:
 r  s ={ t | t  r and t  s }
 Assume:
 r, s have the same arity
 attributes of r and s are compatible
 Note: r  s = r - (r - s)

3.35
 Set-Intersection Operation -
Example
 Relation r, s:
A B A B
 1  2
 2  3
 1

r s
rs A B

 2

3.36
 Natural-Join Operation
 Notation: r s
 Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively.The
result is a relation on schema R  S which is obtained by
considering each pair of tuples tr from r and ts from s.
 If tr and ts have the same value on each of the attributes in R
 S, a tuple t is added to the result, where
 t has the same value as t on r
r
 t has the same value as t on s
s
 Example:
R = (A, B, C, D)
S = (E, B, D)
 Result schema = (A, B, C, D, E)
 r s is defined as:

r.A, r.B, r.C, r.D, s.E (r.B = s.B r.D = s.D (r x s))

3.37
 Natural Join Operation – Example
 Relations r, s:

A B C D B D E

 1  a 1 a 
 2  a 3 a 
 4  b 1 a 
 1  a 2 b 
 2  b 3 b 
r s

r s
A B C D E
Theta join operation
 1  a 
 1  a 
 1  a 
 1  a 
 2  b 

3.38
 Division Operation

rs
 Suited to queries that include the phrase “for all”.
 Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S
respectively where
 R = (A1, …, Am, B1, …, Bn)
 S = (B1, …, Bn)
The result of r  s is a relation on schema
R – S = (A1, …, Am)

r  s = { t | t   R-S(r)   u  s ( tu  r ) }

3.39
 Division Operation – Example

Relations r, s: A B B
 1
1
 2
 3 2
 1 s
 1
 1
 3
 4
 6
 1
 2
r  s: A r




3.40
 Another Division Example

Relations r, s:
A B C D E D E

 a  a 1 a 1
 a  a 1 b 1
 a  b 1 s
 a  a 1
 a  b 3
 a  a 1
 a  b 1
 a  b 1
r

r  s: A B C

 a 
 a 

3.41
 Division Operation (Cont.)

 Property
 Let q = r  s
 Then q is the largest relation satisfying q x s  r
 Definition in terms of the basic algebra operation
Let r(R) and s(S) be relations, and let S  R

r  s = R-S (r) –R-S ( (R-S (r) x s) – R-S,S(r))

To see why
 R-S,S(r) simply reorders attributes of r

 R-S(R-S (r) x s) – R-S,S(r)) gives those tuples t in

R-S (r) such that for some tuple u  s, tu  r.

3.42
 Assignment Operation
 The assignment operation () provides a convenient way to
express complex queries, write query as a sequential program
consisting of a series of assignments followed by an
expression whose value is displayed as a result of the query.
 Assignments can also be used to update the database.
 Example: Write r  s as

temp1  R-S (r)

temp2  R-S ((temp1 x s) – R-S,S (r))
result = temp1 – temp2
 The result to the right of the  is assigned to the relation variable
on the left of the .
 May use variable in subsequent expressions.

 Example: Delete all account records in the Perryridge branch.

account  account – branch-name = “Perryridge” (account)

3.43
 Example Queries
 Find all customers who have an account from at
least the “Downtown” and the Uptown” branches.
 Query 1

CN(BN=“Downtown”(depositor account)) 

CN(BN=“Uptown”(depositor account))
where CN denotes customer-name and BN denotes
branch-name.
 Query 2
customer-name, branch-name (depositor account)
 temp(branch-name) ({(“Downtown”), (“Uptown”)})

3.44
 Example Queries
 Find all customers who have an account at all
branches located in Brooklyn city.

customer-name, branch-name (depositor account)

 branch-name (branch-city = “Brooklyn” (branch))

3.45
 Extended Operators

 Generalized Projection
 Aggregate Functions
 Outer Join

3.46
 Generalized Projection
 Extends the projection operation by allowing
arithmetic functions to be used in the projection
list.

 F1, F2, …, Fn (E )
 E is any relational-algebra expression
 Each of F1, F2, …, Fn are are arithmetic expressions
involving constants and attributes in the schema of
E.
 Given relation credit-info(customer-name, limit,
credit-balance), find how much more each person
can spend:
customer-name, limit – credit-balance (credit-info)

3.47
 Aggregate Functions and
Operations
 Aggregation function takes a collection of values and
returns a single value as a result.
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
 Aggregate operation in relational algebra

G1, G2, …, Gn g F1( A1), F2( A2),…, Fn( An) (E)

 E is any relational-algebra expression
 G1, G2 …, Gn is a list of attributes on which to group (can
be empty)
 Each Fi is an aggregate function
 Each Ai is an attribute name

3.48
 Aggregate Operation – Example
 Relation r:

A B C

  7
  7
  3
  10

sum-C
g sum(c) (r)
27

3.49
Aggregate Operation – Example

 Relation account grouped by branch-name:

branch-nameaccount-number balance
Perryridge A-102 400
Perryridge A-201 900
Brighton A-217 750
Brighton A-215 750
Redwood A-222 700

branch-name g sum(balance) (account)

branch-name balance
Perryridge 1300
Brighton 1500
Redwood 700

3.50
 Aggregate Functions (Cont.)
 Result of aggregation does not have a name
 Can use rename operation to give it a name
 For convenience, we permit renaming as part of
aggregate operation

branch-name g sum(balance) as sum-balance (account)

3.51
 Outer Join
 An extension of the join operation that avoids loss
of information.
 Computes the join and then adds tuples form one
relation that does not match tuples in the other
relation to the result of the join.
 Uses null values:
 null signifies that the value is unknown or does not
exist
 All comparisons involving null are (roughly speaking)
false by definition.
 Will study precise meaning of comparisons with
nulls later

3.52
 Outer Join – Example

 Relation loan

loan-number branch-name amount

L-170 Downtown 3000
L-230 Redwood 4000
L-260 Perryridge 1700

 Relation borrower

customer-nameloan-number
Jones L-170
Smith L-230
Hayes L-155

3.53
 Outer Join – Example
 Inner Join

loan Borrower

loan-number branch-name amountcustomer-name

L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones
L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith

 Left Outer Join

loan borrower
loan-number branch-name amountcustomer-name
L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones
L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith
L-260 Perryridge 1700 null

3.54
 Outer Join – Example
 Right Outer Join
loan borrower

loan-number branch-name amountcustomer-name

L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones
L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith
L-155 null null Hayes
 Full Outer Join
loan borrower

loan-number branch-name amountcustomer-name

L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones
L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith
L-260 Perryridge 1700 null
L-155 null null Hayes

3.55
 Null Values
 It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null,
for some of their attributes
 null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not
exist.
 The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null.
 Comparisons with null values return false.
 Aggregate functions simply ignore null values
 Is an arbitrary decision. Could have returned null as result
instead.
 We follow the semantics of SQL in its handling of null values
 For duplicate elimination and grouping, null is treated like
any other value, and two nulls are assumed to be the same
 Alternative: assume each null is different from each other
 Both are arbitrary decisions, so we simply follow SQL

3.56
 Views
 In some cases, it is not desirable for all users to see
the entire logical model (i.e., all the actual relations
stored in the database.)
 Consider a person who needs to know a customer’s
loan number but has no need to see the loan
amount. This person should see a relation
described, in the relational algebra, by
customer-name, loan-number (borrower loan)
 Any relation that is not of the conceptual model but
is made visible to a user as a “virtual relation” is
called a view.

3.57
 View Definition
 A view is defined using the create view statement
which has the form

create view v as <query expression>

where <query expression> is any legal relational

algebra query expression. The view name is
represented by v.
 Once a view is defined, the view name can be used
to refer to the virtual relation that the view
generates.
 View definition is not the same as creating a new
relation by evaluating the query expression Rather,
a view definition causes the saving of an expression
to be substituted into queries using the view.

3.58
 View Examples
 Consider the view (named all-customer) consisting
of branches and their customers.
create view all-customer as
branch-name, customer-name (depositor account)
 branch-name, customer-name (borrower
loan)

 We can find all customers of the Perryridge branch

by writing:
branch-name
(branch-name = “Perryridge” (all-customer))

3.59
Views Defined Using Other Views
 One view may be used in the expression defining
another view
 A view relation v1 is said to depend directly on a
view relation v2 if v2 is used in the expression
defining v1
 A view relation v1 is said to depend on view relation
v2 if either v1 depends directly to v2 or there is a
path of dependencies from v1 to v2
 A view relation v is said to be recursive if it
depends on itself.

3.60
 Snapshots
 Any relation that is not of the conceptual model but
is made visible to a user to reflect the status of the
database at the moment when the relation is
created is called a snapshot.
 A view is like a “mirror” always reflecting the
current status of the database; it changes when the
database is updated. A snapshot reflects just the
status when the snapshot is created; once it’s
created, it doesn’t change.
 A snapshot is defined using the create snapshot
statement which has the form

create snapshot v as <query expression>

3.61
 Tuple Relational Calculus
 A nonprocedural query language, where each query is
of the form

{t | P (t) }
 It is the set of all tuples t such that predicate P is true
for t
 t is a tuple variable, t[A] denotes the value of tuple t
on attribute A
 t  r denotes that tuple t is in relation r
 P is a formula similar to that of the predicate calculus

3.62
 Predicate Calculus Formula
1. Set of attributes and constants
2. Set of comparison operators: (e.g., , , , , , )
3. Set of connectives: and (), or (v)‚ not ()
4. Implication (): x  y, if x if true, then y is true
x  y x v y
5. Set of quantifiers:
t r (Q(t)) ”there exists” a tuple in t in relation r
such that predicate Q(t) is true
t r (Q(t)) Q is true “for all” tuples t in relation r

3.63
 Banking Example
 branch (branch-name, branch-city, assets)
 customer (customer-name, customer-street,
customer-city)
 account (account-number, branch-name, balance)
 loan (loan-number, branch-name, amount)
 depositor (customer-name, account-number)
 borrower (customer-name, loan-number)

3.64
 Example Queries
 Find the loan-number, branch-name, and amount
for loans of over $1200
{t | t  loan  t [amount]  1200}
or {t | loan (t)  t .amount  1200}

 Find the loan number for each loan of an amount

greater than $1200
{t |  s loan (t[loan-number] = s[loan-number]
 s [amount]  1200}
or {t.loan-number | t loan  t [amount]  1200}

Notice that a relation on schema [loan-number] is

implicitly defined by the query

3.65
 Example Queries
 Find the names of all customers having a loan, an
account, or both at the bank
{t | s  borrower(t[customer-name] = s[customer-
name])
 u  depositor(t[customer-name] = u[customer-
name])

 Find the names of all customers who have a loan

and an account at the bank

{t | s  borrower(t[customer-name] = s[customer-
name])
 u  depositor(t[customer-name] = u[customer-
name])

3.66
 Example Queries
 Find the names of all customers having a loan at the
Perryridge branch
{t | s  borrower(t[customer-name] = s[customer-name]

 u  loan(u[branch-name] = “Perryridge”
 u[loan-number] = s[loan-number]))}

 Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the

Perryridge branch, but no account at any branch of the
bank
{t | s  borrower(t[customer-name] = s[customer-name]
 u  loan(u[branch-name] = “Perryridge”
 u[loan-number] = s[loan-number]))
 not v  depositor (v[customer-name] =
t[customer-name]) }

3.67
 Example Queries
 Find the names of all customers having a loan from
the Perryridge branch, and the cities they live in

{t | s  loan(s[branch-name] = “Perryridge”
 u  borrower (u[loan-number] = s[loan-
number]
 t [customer-name] = u[customer-name])
  v  customer (u[customer-name] =
v[customer-name]
 t[customer-city] =
v[customer-city])))}

3.68
 Example Queries
 Find the names of all customers who have an account at
all branches located in Brooklyn:

{t |  c  customer (t[customer.name] = c[customer-name])


 s  branch(s[branch-city] = “Brooklyn” 
 u  account ( s[branch-name] = u[branch-name]
  m  depositor ( t[customer-name] =
m[customer-name]
 m[account-number] = u[account-
number] )) )}

3.69
 Universal and Existential Quantifiers
 (x) ((P(x)) <==> not (x)(not (P(x)))
 ( x) ((P(x)) <==> not ( x)(not (P(x)))
 (x) ((P(x) and Q(x)) <==> not (x)(not (P(x)) or not (Q(x)))
 (x) ((P(x) or Q(x)) <==> not (x)(not (P(x)) and not (Q(x)))
 ( x) ((P(x) or Q(x)) <==> not ( x)(not (P(x)) and not (Q(x)))
 ( x) ((P(x) and Q(x)) <==> not ( x)(not (P(x)) or not (Q(x)))

 (x) ((P(x)) ==> (x) (P(x))

 Not ( x) ((P(x)) ==> not ( x)(P(x))

3.70
 Examples
 Find the names of employees who have no
dependents.
{e.name | e  employee and (not (d (d  dependent
and
e.ssn = d.essn))}

or
{e.name | e  employee and (( d (not (d 
dependent) or
not (e.ssn = d.essn)))}
(notice that:
 d (d  dependent) ==> not (e.ssn =
d.essn) )

3.71
 Domain Relational Calculus
 A nonprocedural query language equivalent in
power to the tuple relational calculus
 Each query is an expression of the form:

{  x1, x2, …, xn  | P(x1, x2, …, xn)}

 x1, x2, …, xn represent domain variables

 P represents a formula similar to that of the predicate
calculus

3.72
 Example Queries
 Find the branch-name, loan-number, and amount for loans
of over $1200
{ l, b, a  |  l, b, a   loan  a > 1200}
 Find the names of all customers who have a loan of over
$1200

{ c  |  l, b, a ( c, l   borrower   l, b, a   loan  a >

1200)}
 Find the names of all customers who have a loan from the
Perryridge branch and the loan amount:

{ c, a  |  l ( c, l   borrower  b( l, b, a   loan 

b = “Perryridge”))}
or { c, a  |  l ( c, l   borrower   l, “Perryridge”, a  
loan)}

3.73
 Example Queries
 Find the names of all customers having a loan, an
account, or both at the Perryridge branch:
{ c  |  l ({ c, l   borrower
  b,a( l, b, a   loan  b =
“Perryridge”))
  a( c, a   depositor
  b,n( a, b, n   account  b =
“Perryridge”))}

 Find the names of all customers who have an

account at all branches located in Brooklyn:
{ c  |  n ( c, s, n   customer) 
 x,y,z( x, y, z   branch  y = “Brooklyn”) 
 a,b( x, y, z   account   c,a   depositor)}

3.74