Digital cameras, touch screens,
and scanners
Jad Nashawi and Basel Omar
Digital Cameras
Digital cameras have replaced traditional cameras which used to use film, which was very expensive to buy, and required time
before the photographer could see their work. Modern cameras simply link to a computer system via USB or Bluetooth.
These cameras include embedded systems which can carry out the following tasks:
• Adjust the shutter speed
• Focus the image automatically
• Operate the flash gun automatically
• Adjust the Aperture size
• Adjust the size of the image
• Remove ‘red eye’ when the flash gun has been used
• And so on
What happens when a photograph is taken
• The image is captured when light passes through the lens onto a light-sensitive cell; this cell is made up of millions of tiny
sensors which are acting as photodiodes (i.e. charge couple devices (CCD) which convert light into electricity)
• Each of the sensors are often referred to as pixels since they are tiny components that make up the image
• The image is converted into tiny electric charges which are then passed through an analogue to digital converter (ADC) to form
a digital image array
• The ADC converts the electric charges from each pixel into levels of brightness (now in a digital format); for example, an 8-bit
ADC gives 28 (256) possible brightness levels per pixel
• apart from brightness, the sensors also measure color which produces another binary pattern; most cameras use a 24-bit RGB
system (each pixel has 8 bits representing each of the 3 primary colors), which means each pixel has a red value (0 to 255 in
denary), a green value (0 to 255) and a blue value (0 to 255)
• the number of pixels determines the size of the file used to store the photograph
• the quality of the image depends on the recording device (how good the camera lens is), the number of pixels used (the more
pixels used, the better the image), the levels of light and how the image is stored (JPEG, raw file, and so on)
2D and 3D scanners
2D scanners are the most common form and are generally used to input hard copy (paper) documents. The image is converted into
an electronic form that can be stored in a computer.
Computers equipped with optical character recognition (OCR) software allow the scanned text from the document to be converted
into a text file format. This means the scanned image can now be edited and manipulated by importing it into a word processor. If
the original document was a photograph or image, then the scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG
3D scanners
3D scanners scan solid objects and produce a three-dimensional image. Since solid objects have x, y and z coordinates, these
scanners take images at several points along these three coordinates. A digital image which represents the solid object is formed.
The scanned images can be used in computer aided design (CAD) or, more recently, sent to a 3D printer to produce a working
model of the scanned image.
Application of 2D scanners at an airport
2D scanners are used at airports to read passports. They make use of OCR technology to produce digital images which represent
the passport pages. Because of the OCR technology, these digital images can be manipulated in a number of ways.
For example, the OCR software is able to review these images, select the text part, and then automatically put the text into the
correct fields of an existing database. It is possible for the text to be stored in an ASCII format – it all depends on how the data is
to be used.
At many airports the two-dimensional photograph in the passport is scanned and stored as a JPEG image. The passenger’s face is
also photographed using a digital camera (a 2D image is taken so it can be matched to the image taken from the passport). The two
digital images are compared using face recognition/detection software. Key parts of the face are compared.
Each position is checked when the software tries to compare two facial images. Data, such as:
• distance between the eyes
• width of the nose
• shape of the cheek bones
• length of the jaw line
• shape of the eyebrows,
are all used to uniquely identify a given face. When the image from the passport and the image taken by the camera are compared,
these key positions on the face determine whether or not the two images represent the same face
Application of 3D scanning – computed tomographic (CT) scanners
Computed tomographic (CT) scanners are used to create a 3D image of a solid object. This is based on tomography technology,
which basically builds up an image of the solid object through a series of very thin ‘slices’. Each of these 2D ‘slices’ make up a
representation of the 3D solid object.
Each slice is built up by use of X-rays, radio frequencies or gamma imaging; although a number of other methods exist. Each
‘slice’ is then stored as a digital image in the computer memory. The whole of the solid object is represented digitally in the
computer memory
Here is a simple example of how tomography works:
Touch screens
Touch screens are now a very common form of input device. They allow simple touch selection from a menu to launch an
application. Touch screens allow the user to carry out the same functions as they would with a pointing device, such as a mouse.
There are three common types of touch screen technologies currently being used by mobile phone and tablet manufacturers:
• capacitive
• infrared
• Resistive
Capacitive touch screens
Capacitive touch screens are composed of a layer of glass (protective layer), a transparent electrode (conductive) layer and a glass
substrate. Since human skin is a conductor of electricity, when bare fingers
touch the screen, the electrostatic field of the conductive layer is changed. The installed microcontroller is able to calculate where
this change took place and hence determine the coordinates of the point of touching.
There are two types of capacitive touch screen:
• Surface
• Projective
With surface capacitive screens, sensors are placed at the corners of a screen. Small voltages are also applied at the corners of the
screen creating an electric field. A finger touching the screen surface will draw current from each corner reducing the capacitance.
A microcontroller measures the decrease in capacitance and hence determines the point where the finger touched the screen. This
system only works with a bare finger or stylus.
Projective capacitive screens work slightly differently to surface capacitive screens. The transparent conductive layer is now in the
form of an X-Y matrix pattern. This creates a three dimensional (3D) electrostatic field. When a finger touches the screen, it
disturbs the 3D electrostatic field allowing a microcontroller to determine the coordinates of the point of contact. This system
works with bare fingers, stylus and thin surgical or cotton gloves. It also allows multi-touch facility (for example, pinching or
sliding).
Advantages compared to the other two technologies:
• Better image clarity than resistive screens, especially in strong sunlight
• Very durable screens that have high scratch resistance
• Projective capacitive screens allow multi-touch.
Disadvantages compared to the other two technologies:
• Surface capacitive screens only work with bare fingers or a special stylus
• They are sensitive to electromagnetic radiation (such as magnetic fields or microwaves).
Infrared touch screens
Infrared touch screens use a glass screen with an array of sensors and infrared transmitters.
The sensors detect the infrared radiation. If any of the infrared beams are broken (for example, with a finger touching the screen),
the infrared radiation reaching the sensors is reduced. The sensor readings are sent to a microcontroller that calculates where the
screen was touched:
Advantages compared to the other two technologies
• Allows multi-touch facilities
• Has good screen durability
• The operability isn’t affected by a scratched or cracked screen.
Disadvantages compared to the other two technologies
• The screen can be sensitive to water or moisture
• It is possible for accidental activation to take place if the infrared beams are disturbed in some way Sometimes sensitive to
light interference.
Resistive touch screens
Resistive touch screens are made up of two layers of electrically resistive material with a voltage applied across them. The upper
layer is made of flexible polyethylene with a resistive coating on one side. The bottom layer is made of glass also with a resistive
coating (usually indium tin oxide) on one side. These two layers are separated by air or an inert gas (such as argon). When the top
polyethylene surface is touched, the two layers make contact. Since both layers are coated in a resistive material a circuit is now
completed which results in a flow of electricity. The point of contact is detected where there was a change in voltage
Advantages compared to the other two technologies :
• Good resistance to dust and water
• Can be used with bare fingers, stylus and gloved hand.
Disadvantages compared to the other two technologies :
• Low touch sensitivity (sometimes have to press down harder)
• Doesn’t support multi-touch facility
• Poor visibility in strong sunlight
• Vulnerable to scratches on the screen (made of polymer).
Thank you for listening
