Cardiovascular

system(cvs)
Dr Mlelwa (MD)
 Learning objectives
At the end of this session the learner should be able to;
• Understand the concept of circulatory system.
• Explain the functions of Circulatory system.
• Describe the Components of circulatory system.
• Describe the blood circulation
• Understand about Pacemaker and action potential.
• Describe The lymphatic systems
• Briefly explain about Disorders of circulatory system.
Introduction to cardiovascular system
(CVS)
• The cardiovascular system is the transport system
of the body by which food, oxygen, water and all
other essentials are carried to the tissue cells and
their waste products are carried away.
• It consists of three parts:
1) The blood
2) The heart
3) Blood vessels
Introduction to CVS cont….
1) The blood, Which is the fluid in which materials are
carried to and from the tissue
2) The heart, which is the driving force which propels the
blood
3) The blood vessels, the routes by which the blood travels
to and through the tissues and back to the heart.
 The Blood
• Blood is classified as a connective tissue, since nearly half of
it is made up of cells.
• However, it differ from other connective tissues in that its
cells are not fixed in position, instead they move freely in
the liquid portion of the blood, the plasma.
• Blood is a viscous (thick) fluid that varies in colour from
bright to dark red, depending on how much oxygen it is
carrying.
• Its quantity differs with the size of the person; the average
adult male, weighing 70 kg has about 5-6 litres of blood.
 Functions of the Blood
1) Transportation
2) Regulation
3) protection
 Functions of the Blood cont…
1. Transportation
The blood is media for transportation of the following;
a) Transportation of oxygen and carbondioxide.
b) The blood transports foods and other needed substances
such as minerals and vitamins, to the cells.
c) The blood transports waste products from the cells to the
sites from which they are released.
d) The blood carries hormones from their sites of origin to
the organs they affect.
 Functions of the Blood cont…
2.Regulation
a) Buffers in the blood help keep the PH of body fluids at
about 7.4
b) The blood serves to regulate the amount of fluid in the
tissues by means of substances (mainly proteins) that
maintain the proper osmotic pressure
c) Blood helps in regulation of body temperature through
transportation of heat (that is generated in muscles) to
different body parts.
 Functions of the Blood cont…
3. Protection
a) The blood carries the cells that are among the body’s
defenders against pathogens. It also contains substances
(antibodies) that are concerned with immunity to disease.
b) The blood contains factors that protect against blood loss.
 Composition of Blood
The blood is composed of two (2) main components;
1) The blood cells
2) The plasma

Of the total blood volume in the human body, 38% to 48% is
composed of the various blood cells, also called formed
elements or corpuscles.
The remaining 52% to 62% of the blood volume is plasma,
the liquid portion of blood
1. The formed elements ( blood cells)
• The formed elements are classified as follows:
i. Erythrocytes, from erythro, meaning “red,” are the red
blood cells, which transport oxygen. Make up more than
99% of formed element.
ii. Leukocytes, from leuko, meaning “white,” are the several
types of white blood cells, which protect against infection.
iii. Platelets, also called thrombocytes, are cell fragments
that participate in blood clotting.
1. The formed elements ( blood cells)…
i. Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
• The trillions of red blood cells in blood plasma carry oxygen.
• Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a protein with iron that binds
with oxygen.
• Red blood cells are made in the marrow of long bones, rib bones,
the skull, and the vertebrae.
• These cells survive for about 120 days, and then they are
destroyed.
• Mature red blood cells lack a nucleus and other organelles, allowing
for more hemoglobin, and therefore more oxygen to be carried by
each cell.
1. The formed elements ( blood cells)…
ii. White blood cells (leucocytes)
• Are generally larger than red blood cells but far fewer in
number (making up less than 0.01% of all formed element).
• They defend the body against foreign bacteria, viruses and
other pathogens.
• For example, white blood cells called phagocytes swallow
and destroy microorganisms and debris in the blood,
neutrophils engulf bacteria and other parasites, and
lymphocytes fight infections caused by bacteria and viruses.
1. The formed elements ( blood cells)…
iii. Platelets
• Are cell fragments involved in blood clotting, making up less
than 1% of formed elements.
• They stick to tears in blood vessels and to each other,
forming a plug at the site of injury.
• They also release chemicals that are needed for clotting to
occur.
 2. Plasma
• Over half of the total volume of blood is plasma.
• The plasma itself is 90% water.
• Many different substances dissolved or suspended in the
water, make up the other 10%.
• The plasma content varies somewhat, since the substances
carried by the blood to and from the organs get used and
added to.
• However, the body tends to maintain a fairly constant level
of these substances.
Components of plasma
Water (about 90%)
Plasma proteins
Nutrients (glucose, amino acids & lipids)
Mineral salts like potassium, sodium and magnesium
salts
Hormones
Waste products like urea etc
Components of plasma…
Plasma proteins
• The plasma proteins include the following:
a) Albumin, the most abundant protein in plasma, is important
for maintaining the osmotic pressure of the blood. This
protein is manufactured in the liver.
b) The antibodies combat infection.
c) The blood clotting factors are also manufactured in the liver.
d) A system of enzymes made of several proteins, collectively
known as complement, helps antibodies in their fight against
pathogens.
Activity (5 minutes)
• In small groups discuss about blood groups
Blood groups
• The plasma membrane of an erythrocyte (Red blood cells)
has numerous molecules called surface antigens that
project from the plasma membrane surface.
• The most commonly identified group of antigens is the ABO
blood group.
• This group has two surface antigens, called A and B.
• The presence or absence of either the A and/or B surface
antigen are the criteria that determine your ABO blood
type,
Blood groups cont…
• Four blood types involving the A and B antigens have been
recognized: A, B, AB, and O.
• These letters indicate the types of antigen present on the
red cells, with O indicating that neither A nor B antigen is
present.
• It is these antigens on the donor’s red cells that react with
the antibodies in the patient’s plasma and cause a
transfusion reaction.
Blood groups cont…
• Blood with erythrocytes having surface antigen A is called
type A blood.
• Blood with erythrocytes having surface antigen B is called
type B blood.
• Blood with erythrocytes having surface antigens A and B is
called type AB blood.
• Blood with erythrocytes having neither surface antigen A
nor B is called type O blood.
Blood groups cont…
Blood groups cont…
• Blood types become clinically important when a patient
needs a blood transfusion.
• If a person is transfused with blood of an incompatible type,
antibodies in the plasma bind to surface antigens of the
transfused erythrocytes, and clumps of erythrocytes bind
together in a process termed agglutination.
• Clumped erythrocytes can block blood vessels and prevent
the normal circulation of blood.
• Eventually, some or all of the clumped erythrocytes may
rupture, a process called hemolysis
The Heart
 The Heart
• The heart is a muscular pump that drives the blood through
the blood vessels.
• Slightly bigger than a fist, this organ is located between the
lungs in the center and a bit to the left on the midline of
the body.
• However, the vital functions of the heart and its disorders
are of more practical importance to us.
• As the center of the cardiovascular system, the heart
connects to blood vessels that transport blood between the
heart and all body tissues.
 Structure of the Heart
• The heart is a hollow organ the walls of which are formed of
three different layers. The heart wall has three tissue
layers
1) Endocardium-innermost thin layer that lines the interior of
the heart. Covered by simple squamous epithelium.
2) Myocardium-the muscle of the heart. Is the thickest layer
3) epicardium- the thin outermost layer of the heart wall and
is continuous with the serous lining of the fibrous sac that
encloses the heart called pericardium.
 THE CARDIAC MUSCLE
• The cardiac muscle tissue – give the myocardium its unique
functional properties.
• Cardiac muscle is made up of Myofibrils.
• Cardiac muscle cells being connected by Gap junctions
(Communicating junctions), ions and molecules can move
between cells at gap junctions, thereby creating a direct
electrical connection between the two muscle cells.
• As a result stimulus for contraction (Action potential) can
move from one cardiac muscle to another.
 Chambers of the Heart
• Physicians often refer to the right heart and the left heart.
This is because the human heart is really a double pump.
• The two sides are completely separated from each other by
a partition called the septum.
• The upper part of this partition is called interartrial
septum; while the larger the lower portion is called
interventricular septum.
• The septum, like the heart wall, consists largely of
myocardium.
 Chambers of the Heart cont…
• On either side of the heart are two chambers, one a
receiving chamber (atrium) and the other a pumping chamber
(ventricle): so generally the heart has 4 chambers
1) Right atrium
2) Right ventricle
3) Left atrium
4) Left ventricle
Chambers of the Heart cont…

Left atrium
Right atrium

Left ventricle

Right ventricle
 Chambers of the Heart cont…
1) The right atrium is a thin-walled chamber that
receives the blood retuning from the body tissues.
This blood, which is low in oxygen, is carried in the
veins, the blood vessels leading to the heart from
the body tissues.
2) The right ventricle pumps the venous blood
received from the right atrium and sends it to the
lungs.
 Chambers of the Heart cont…
3) The left atrium receives blood high in oxygen
content as it returns from the lungs.
4) The left ventricle, which has the thickest walls of
all, pumps, oxygenated blood to all parts of the
body. This blood goes through the arteries, the
vessels that take blood from the heart to the
tissues.
 Valves of the heart
• Since the ventricles are the pumping chambers, the valves,
which are all one way, are located at the entrance and the exit
of each ventricle. The has four valves;
1) The right atrioventricular (tricuspid) valve
2) The left atrioventricular (mitral) valve
3) The pulmonary valve
4) The aortic valve
• The heart’s anatomy ensures the unidirectional flow of blood
through it. Backflow of blood is prevented by valves within the
heart.
Valves of the heart cont…
 ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY
• Echocardiography uses high-frequency sound waves
(ultrasound) to penetrate the body, reflect from relevant
structures, and generate an image.
• Echocardiography is a test that uses sound waves to produce
live images of your heart. The image is called an
echocardiogram. This test allows your doctor to monitor how
your heart and its valves are functioning.
• An echocardiogram is key in determining the health of the
heart muscle, especially after a heart attack. It can also
reveal heart defects, or irregularities, in unborn babies.
 ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY cont…
The images can help them get information about:
1. The size of the heart, for instance, if there is any change in the
chamber size, dilation, or thickening
2. Blood clots in the heart chambers
3. Fluid in the sac around the heart
4. Problems with the aorta, which is the main artery connected to the
heart
5. Problems with the pumping function or relaxing function of the heart
6. Problems with the function of heart valves
7. Pressure in the heart
ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY cont…
Activity (5 minutes)
Question; in small groups discuss on the major blood vessels
that are connected to the heart
 Blood Supply to the Myocardium
• Although blood flows through the
heart chambers, only the Left coronary
artery
endocardium comes into contact with Right coronary
artery
it.
• Therefore, the myocardium must
have its own blood vessels to provide
oxygen and nourishment and to
remove waste products.
• This happens through the right and
left coronary arteries and their
corresponding veins (coronary
circulation)
Physiology of
the heart
 Physiology of the Heart
The Work of the Heart
• Although the right and left side of the heart are separated
from each other, they work together.
• The blood is squeezed through the chambers by a
contraction of heart muscle beginning in the thin-walled
upper chambers, the atria, followed by a contraction of the
thick muscle of the lower chambers, the ventricles.
• This active phase (contraction) is called systole, and in each
case it is followed by a resting period known as diastole.
• The volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in 1 minute is
termed the cardiac output (CO).
• It is determined by the volume of blood ejected from the
ventricle with each beat−the stroke volume (SV)−and the
number of beats of the heart per minute−the heart rate
(HR).
Hence; CO= SV x HR

• The cardiac output averages 5 litres/minute for an adult at

rest.
The Conduction System of the Heart
• The cardiac cycle is
regulated by specialized
areas in the heart wall that
forms the conduction
system of the heart.
• Two of these areas are
tissue mass called nodes;
the third is a group of
fibers called the
atrioventricular bundle.
The Conduction System of the Heart
cont…
• Therefore the conduction system of the heart
consists of;
1) Sinoatrial node (SA node) ( also called pacemaker)
2) Atrioventricular node (AN node)
3) Atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His)
4) Right and left bundle branches
5) Purkinje fibers
The Conduction System of the Heart
cont…
• The sinoatrial node, which is located In the upper wall of the
right atrium an initiates the heart beat, is called the natural
pacemaker contain pacemakers cells called P cells.
• The second node, located in the interatrial septum at the
bottom of the right atrium, is called the atrioventricular
node.
• The atrioventricular bundle, also known as the bundle of His,
is located at the top of the interventricular septum; it has
branches that extend to all parts of the ventricle walls.
The Conduction System of the Heart
cont…
• Fibers travel first down both sides of the interventricular
septum in groups called the right and left bundle
branches.
• Smaller Purkinje fibers then travel in a branching network
throughout the myocardium of the ventricles
The Conduction System of the Heart
cont…
The conduction system of the heart
The Conduction System of the Heart
cont…
• The order in which the impulses travel is as follows:
1) The sinoatrial node generates the electric impulse that
begins the heart beat.
2) the excitation wave travels throughout the muscle of each
atrium, causing it to contract.
3) the atrioventricular node is stimulated. The relatively
slower conduction through this node allows time for the
atria to contract and complete the filling of the ventricles.
The Conduction System of the Heart
cont…
4) The excitation wave travels rapidly through the bundle of
His and then throughout the ventricular walls by means of
the bundle branches and Purkinje fibers.
5) The entire musculature of the ventricles contracts
practically at once.

If the SA node is damaged, a mechanical device called an

artificial pacemaker (or simply "pacemaker") may be used.
Artificial pacemaker
 Generation of action
potential/electrical impulse
Group assignment;
• Question: how are the action potentials generated?
 Control of the Heart Rate
• Although the fundamental beat of the heart originates within
the heart itself, the heart rate can be influenced by the
nervous system (autonomic nervous system) and by other
factors in the internal environment.
• Stimulation from the sympathetic nervous system increases
the heart rate and the stimulation from the parasympathetic
nervous system decreases the heartrate.
• These influences allow the heart to meet changing need
rapidly.
• The heart rate is also affected by such factors as hormones,
ions, and drugs in the blood.
 Heart Rates
i. Bradycardia is a relatively slow heart rate of less than 60
beats/minute. During rest and sleep, the heart may beat
less than 60 beats/minute but usually does not fall below
50 beats/minute.
ii. Tachycardia refers to a heart rate over 100
beats/minute.
iii. Sinus arrhythmia is a regular variation in heart rate due
to changes in the rate and depth of breathing. It is normal
phenomenon. Heart rate increases during inspiration and
decreases during expiration.
 Heart Rates cont…
iv. Premature beats, also called extrasystoles are beats that
come in before the expected normal beats. They may
occur in normal persons initiated by caffeine, nicotine, or
psycologic stresses. They are also common in persons with
heart disease.
 The Electrocardiogram
• Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG from electrokardiogram in
Dutch) is the record or graphical registration of electrical
activities of the heart, which occur prior to the onset of
mechanical activities.
• It is the summed electrical activity of all cardiac muscle
fibers recorded from surface of the body.
• This current can be picked up from surface of the body by
using suitable electrodes and recorded in the form of
electrocardiogram.
 The Electrocardiogram cont…
• Electrocardiograph is the instrument (machine) by which
electrical activities of the heart are recorded.
• Electrocardiography is the technique by which electrical
activities of the heart are studied.
• This technique was discovered by Dutch physiologist,
Einthoven Willem, who is considered the father of
electrocardiogram (ECG).
 The Electrocardiogram cont…

ECG machine/electrocardiograph ECG electrodes

 The Electrocardiogram cont…
• A typical ECG tracing for one heart cycle has three principal
deflections/waves. These waves are indicators of depolarization
and repolarization within specific regions of the heart:
1) The P wave is generated when the impulse originating in the
SA node depolarizes the cells of the atria.
2) The QRS complex identifies the beginning of depolarization of
the ventricles. Simultaneously, the atria repolarize; however,
this repolarization signal is masked by the electrical activity of
the ventricles.
3) The T wave is a small, rounded peak that denotes ventricular
repolarization.
The Electrocardiogram cont…

BRAINSTORMING;
Why do you think
the QRS deflection
is high peaked?
 USES OF ECG
Electrocardiogram is useful in determining and diagnosing the
following:
• 1. Heart rate
• 2. Heart rhythm
• 3. Abnormal electrical conduction
• 4. Poor blood flow to heart muscle (ischemia)
• 5. Heart attack
• 6. Coronary artery disease
• 7. Hypertrophy of heart chambers.
 Arrhythmia and defibrillation
• Arrhythmia (dysrhythmias) Arrhythmias are generally
refers to irregular grouped into ;
heartbeat or disturbance in a) Sinus arrhythmia
the rhythm of heart.
b) Tachyarrhytmias
• In arrhythmia, heartbeat Supraventricular arrhythmias
may be fast or slow or there (atrial flutter & atrial
may be an extra beat or a fibrillation)
missed beat. Ventricular arrhythmias
(ventricular tachycardia &
• It occurs in physiological fibrillation)
and pathological conditions.
c) Bradyarrhythmias
Arrhythmia and defibrillation cont…
 Arrhythmia and defibrillation cont…
• Defibrillation is a treatment for life-
threatening cardiac dysrhythmias,
specifically ventricular fibrillation (VF)
and ventricular tachycardia (VT).
• A defibrillator delivers a dose of
electric current (often called a
countershock) to the heart.
• Subsequently, the body's
natural pacemaker in the sinoatrial node
of the heart is able to re establish
normal sinus rhythm.
 Heart Sounds and Murmurs
• The normal heart sounds are usually described by the
syllables “lubb” and “dupp.” on listening these sounds by a
stethoscope we can pick two normal sounds (S1&S2)
• The first (S1) is a longer, lower pitched sound that occurs at
the start of ventricular systole. It is probably caused by a
combination of things, including closure of the
atrioventricular valves.
• The second (S2), or “dupp,” sound is shorter and sharper. It
occurs at the beginning of ventricular relaxation and is due
in large part to sudden closure of the semilunar valves.
 Heart Sounds and Murmurs cont…
• Some abnormal sounds called murmurs are usually due to
faulty action of the valves.
• For example, if the valves fail to close tightly and blood
leaks back, a murmur is heard.
• Another condition giving rise to an abnormal sound is the
narrowing (stenosis) of a valve opening.
• The many conditions that can cause abnormal heart sounds
include congenital defects, disease, and physiological
variations.
 Blood vessels
Functional classification
• The blood vessels, together with the four chambers of the
heart, from a closed system for the flow of blood; only if
there is an injury to some part of the wall of this system does
any blood escape.
• On the basis of function, blood vessels may be classified into
three groups:
1) Arteries
2) Veins
3) Capillaries
 Blood vessels cont…
1) Arteries carry blood from the ventricles (pumping
chambers) of the heart out to the capillaries in organs
and tissue. The smallest arteries are called arterioles.
2) Veins drain capillaries in the tissues and organs and
return the blood to the heart. The smallest veins are
the venules.
3) Capillaries allow for exchanges between the blood and
body cells, or between the blood and air in the lung
tissues. The capillaries connect the arterioles and
venules.
 Structure of blood vessels
• Arteries, veins and capillaries differ in structure.
Three coats or layers called tunics are found in both
arteries and veins;
i. Tunica Intima- innermost layer
ii. The tunica media- middle layer
iii. The tunica externa/adventitia- outermost layer
 Structure of blood vessels cont…
i. Tunica intima
• The innermost layer of a blood vessel wall is the
tunica intima, or tunica interna.
• It is composed of an endothelium (a simple squamous
epithelium lining the blood vessel lumen) and a
subendothelial layer made up of a thin layer of
areolar connective tissue.
 Structure of blood vessels cont…
ii. The tunica media
• The tunica media is the middle layer of the vessel wall.
• It is composed of circularly arranged layers of smooth
muscle cells.
• Sympathetic innervation causes the smooth muscle to
contract, resulting in vasoconstriction, or narrowing of the
blood vessel lumen.
• When the fibers relax, vasodilation, or widening of the
blood vessel lumen, results.
 Structure of blood vessels cont…
ii. The tunica media cont…
• However, the muscle layer is much thicker in arteries than in
veins. Why is this important?
• Because the thicker muscle layer in the artery wall is able to
resist great pressures generated by ventricular systole.
• In arteries, the tunica medial plays a critical role in
maintaining blood pressure and controlling blood distribution
in the body.
• This is a smooth muscle, so it is controlled by the autonomic
nervous system.
 Structure of blood vessels cont…
iii. The tunica externa
• The tunica externa, or tunica adventitia, is the outermost layer
of the blood vessel wall.
• It is composed of areolar connective tissue that contains
elastic and collagen fibers.
• The tunica externa helps anchor the vessel to other structures.
• Very large blood vessels require their own blood supply to the
tunica externa in the form of a network of small arteries called
the vasa vasorum (vā -să vā -sŏ r′ŭ m; vessels of vessels).
• The vasa vasorum extend through the tunica externa.
 Structure of blood vessels cont…
• Finally, capillaries contain only the tunica intima, but this
layer consists of a basement membrane and endothelium
only.
• Intercellular clefts are the thin spaces between adjacent
cells in the capillary wall.
• Having only the tunica intima, without connective tissue and
muscle layers, allows for rapid gas and nutrient exchange
between the blood and the tissues.
• Thus, capillaries are called the functional units of the
cardiovascular system.
 Structure of blood vessels cont…
• The three basic kinds of capillaries are
Continuous capillaries,
Fenestrated capillaries, and
Sinusoids
 Blood circulation/Circulatory Routes
or Circuits
• All the vessels together may be subdivided into two
groups or circuits:
1. Pulmonary circulation and
2. Systemic circulation.
 Blood circulation/Circulatory Routes
or Circuits cont…
1. Pulmonary circulation: carry blood to and from the lungs.
• They include the pulmonary artery and its branches to the
capillaries in the lungs, as well as the veins that drain those
capillaries.
• The pulmonary arteries carry blood low in oxygen from the
right ventricle, while the pulmonary veins carry blood high in
oxygen from the lungs into the left atrium.
• This circuit functions to eliminate carbon dioxide from the
blood and replenish its supply of oxygen.
 Blood circulation/Circulatory Routes
or Circuits cont…
2. Systemic circulation: it is the largest circulatory route.
• It takes oxygenated blood from the left ventricle through
the aorta to all parts of the body, including some lung tissue
(not air sac or alveolus) and returns the deoxygenated blood
to the right atrium, through the systemic veins; the superior
vena cava, the inferior vena cava, and the coronary sinus.
• It has several subdivisions. Two of the several subdivisions
are the coronary circulation and the hepatic portal system
or circulation.
Arteries distribution Veins distribution
Figure; Hepatic portal
circulation/ splanchnic
circulation
 Blood Pressure
• Since the pressure inside the
blood vessels varies with the
condition of the heart, the
blood, and the vessels, as well
as with other factors, the
measurement and careful
interpretation of blood
pressure may prove a valuable
guide in the care and evaluation
of a person’s health.
• The instrument used is called a
sphygmomanometer. Digital sphygmomanometer
 Blood Pressure cont…
Two variables are measured:
1. Systolic pressure, which
occurs during heart muscle
contraction, averages
around 120 and is expressed
in millimetres of mercury
(mm Hg).
2. Diastolic pressure, which
occurs during relaxation of
the heart muscle, averages
around 80 mm Hg.
Manual sphygmomanometer
 The Lymphatic System
• The lymphatic system communicates with the blood
circulatory system and is closely associated with it.
It consists of:
1. Lymphatic capillaries made of endothelium (simple
squamous epithelium)
2. Lymphatic vessels made of three layers like veins;
also they have valves.
 The Lymphatic System cont…
3. Lymphatic ducts are ducts that drains different
parts of the body (They empty the lymphatic fluid
into the blood circulatory system) and includes:
a) Right lymphatic duct drains upper right part of
the body and empties in to right subclavian vein
b) Thoracic duct drains remainder part of the body
and empties into left subclavian vein.
 The Lymphatic System cont…
4. Lymph is the fluid within the lymphatic capillaries and
vessels; which is derived from tissue fluid.
• Tissue fluid is derived from the blood plasma.
• A certain amount of this fluid and waste products from the
cells is returned to the venous capillaries, but with in the
tissue spaces fine capillary vessels known as lymphatic
capillaries begin, which help to drain the waste products and
water from the interstitial spaces.
• However the lymph varies from blood in number of ways
The Lymphatic System cont…
TABLE: Differences between lymph and Blood
 The Lymphatic System cont…
5. Lymphoid tissues are distributed through out the body.
These are:
a) Lymph nodes help for filtration of lymph
b) Tonsils also help for filtration of tissue fluids
c) Thymus for processing of T-lymphocytes and hormone
(thymosin) secretion to stimulate T-lymphoid tissues.
d) Spleen helps for filtration of blood, and destruction of old
red cells
 Functions of lymphatic system
• At the arterial end of a capillary bed, blood pressure forces fluid from the blood into
the interstitial spaces around cells.
• This fluid is called interstitial fluid (not to be confused with extracellular fluid, a
term that encompasses both interstitial fluid and plasma).
• Most of this fluid is reabsorbed at the venous end of the capillaries, but an excess
of about 3 liters of fluid per day remains in the interstitial spaces.
• A network of lymph vessels reabsorbs this excess fluid and returns it to the venous
circulation.
• If this excess fluid were not removed, body tissues would swell, a condition called
edema (e-dē ́mă ; oidema = a swelling).
• Further, this excess fluid would accumulate outside the bloodstream, causing blood
levels to drop precipitously.
• Thus, the lymphatic system prevents interstitial fluid levels from rising out of
control and helps maintain blood volume levels.
 Functions of lymphatic system cont…
• Lymph vessels also transport dietary lipids. Although most
nutrients are absorbed directly into the bloodstream, some
larger materials, such as lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins, are
unable to enter the bloodstream directly from the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract.
• Lymphatic organs house lymphocytes, a type of leukocyte.
While some lymphocytes circulate in the bloodstream, most
are located in the lymphatic structures and organs. Some
lymphatic organs assist in these cells’ maturation, while
others serve as a site for lymphocyte replication (mitosis).
 Functions of lymphatic system cont…
• Finally, the lymphatic system cells generate an immune
response and increase the lymphocyte population when
necessary.
• Lymphatic structures contain T-lymphocytes, B-
lymphocytes, and macrophages (monocytes that have
migrated from the bloodstream into other tissues). These
cells are constantly monitoring the blood and the interstitial
fluid for antigens
 Common disorders/ conditions that
affect the CVS
a) Hypertension
b) Ischemic heart diseases/ coronary artery diseases (angina,
myocardial infaction or heart attack )
c) Heart failure
d) Valvular heart diseases (regurgitation vs stenosis)
e) Infections and inflammations ( infective endocarditis,
myocarditis, periocarditis)
f) Congenital heart diseases
g) Arrhythmias
 Evaluation
• What is cardiovascular system and mention its components
• What are the three main functions of blood
• Describe the circulatory routes/ circuits
• What are the blood cells and mention their functions
• Describe the structure of the heart wall and the heart muscle and comment on
its special features
• Explain how action potential is generated at SA node and how is it conducted
through the conducting system of the heart
• What is ECG/EKG and what are the functions of it.
• Which device is used to correct arrhythmia
• What are the functions of lymphatic system
• Mention at least 5 disorders/conditions of CVS
END