: GRAPH THEORY (MAT668)

Rossidah Wan Abdul Aziz

History
What will we cover in this course?

1. Definitions and Fundamental Concepts

2. Trees and Distance
3. Matchings and Factors
4. Connectivity and Paths
5. Graph Colouring
6. Planar Graphs
1.Definitions and Fundamental Concepts
(week 1: 2/3 -6/3/15)

 1.1 Graph Basics and Definitions

 Vertices/Nodes, Edges, Adjacency, Incidence
 Degree, In-Degree, Out-Degree
 Sub graphs, Unions, Isomorphism
 Adjacency Matrices
 Degree Sequences
 1.2 Walk, Path, Cycles and Trails
 1.3 Vertex Degrees and Counting
Vertices/Nodes, Edges, Adjacency, Incidence
 A graph is an ordered pair G=(V,E) where,
 V is the vertex set whose elements are the vertices, or nodes of the graph.
This set is often denoted V(G) or just V.
 E is the edge set whose elements are the edges, or connections between
vertices, of the graph. This set is often denoted E(G)} or just E. If the graph is
undirected, individual edges are unordered pairs {u,v} where u and v are
vertices in V. If the graph is directed, edges are ordered pairs (u,v).
 Two graphs G and H are considered equal when V(G)=V(H) and E(G) = E(H).
 The order of a graph is the number of vertices in it, usually denoted |V| or |
G| or sometimes n. The size of a graph is the number of edges in it,
denoted |E| or |G|, or sometimes m. If n=0 and m=0, the graph is
called empty or null. If n=1 and m=0, the graph is considered trivial. If 1
and m=0, the graph is called discrete.
 Undirected graph[edit]
 An undirected graph is one in which edges have no orientation. The edge (a, b) is identical to the edge (b, a), i.e., they are
not ordered pairs, but sets {u, v} (or 2-multisets) of vertices.
 Directed graph[edit]
 A directed graph
 A directed graph or digraph is an ordered pair D = (V, A) with
 V a set whose elements are called vertices or nodes, and
 A a set of ordered pairs of vertices, called arcs, directed edges, or arrows.
 An arc a = (x, y) is considered to be directed from x to y; y is called the head and x is called the tail of the arc; y is said to
be a direct successor of x, and xis said to be a direct predecessor of y. If a path leads from x to y, then y is said to be
a successor of x and reachable from x, and x is said to be a predecessor of y. The arc (y, x) is called the arc
(x, y) inverted.
 A directed graph D is called symmetric if, for every arc in D, the corresponding inverted arc also belongs to D. A symmetric
loop-less directed graph D = (V, A) is equivalent to a simple undirected graph G = (V, E), where the pairs of inverse arcs
in A correspond 1-to-1 with the edges in E; thus the edges in G number |E| = |A|/2, or half the number of arcs in D.
 A variation on this definition is the oriented graph, in which not more than one of (x, y) and (y, x) may be arcs.
Definitions and Fundamental Concepts
Week 2: 9/3 -13/3/15

 1.4 Types of Graphs

 Trees, Undirected graphs, Simple graphs, Multigraphs, Pseudographs. Directed Graphs (Digraphs),
Directed Multigraphs, Bipartite, Complete Graphs, Cycles, Wheels, Cubes, Complete Bipartite
 1.5 Operations and properties
 1.6 Proof styles
Definitions and Fundamental Concepts

 Week 3: 16/3 -23/3/15

 1.7 Traversability Problems in Graphs:

 Basic properties,
 Königsberg Bridge problem and Eulerian graphs,
 Hamiltonian circuits and paths,
 and applications of Eularian and Hamiltonian Graphs
1.Definitions and Fundamental Concepts
(week 1: 2/3 -6/3/15)

 1.1 Graph Basics and Definitions

 Vertices/Nodes, Edges, Adjacency, Incidence
 Degree, In-Degree, Out-Degree
 Sub graphs, Unions, Isomorphism
 Adjacency Matrices
 Degree Sequences
 1.2 Walk, Path, Cycles and Trails
 1.3 Vertex Degrees and Counting
1.11 Vertices/Nodes, Edges, Adjacency, Incidence

Graph G consists:
Vertex
edge
endpoints
Graph Basics and Definitions
1.13 Sub graphs, Unions, Isomorphism
Adjacency edges
Handshaking Lemma (First Theorem of
Graph Theory)
 The degree sum formula (Handshaking lemma):

∑v ∈ Vdeg(v) = 2 |E|

This means, that the sum of degrees of all the vertices is equal to the number
of edges multiplied by 2. We can conclude, that the number of vertices with
odd degree has to be even. This statement is known as the handshaking
lemma. The name "handshaking lemma" stems from a popular mathematical
problem: In any group of people the number of people who have shaken hands
with an odd number of other people from the group is even.
unions
union
 Same degree of V
Same edge

Exercises in Wilson page 15

1.2 Walk, Path, Cycles and Trails
1.2 Walk, Path, Cycles and Trails
Walk, Path, Cycles and Trails

A trail is a walk with no repeated edge

A path is a walk with no repeated vertex

A circuit with no repeated vertex is called a cycle

Walks, trails, paths, and cycles
A walk is an alternating list v0, e1, v1, e2, . . . , ek , vk of vertices
and edges such that for 1 ≤ i ≤ k, the edge ei has endpoints vi−1 and
vi .
A trail is a walk with no repeated edge.
A path is a walk with no repeated vertex.
A u, v-walk, u, v-trail, u, v-path is a walk, trail, path, respectively,
with first vertex u and last vertex v. If u = v then the u, v-walk and u,
v-trail is closed.
A closed trail (without specifying the first vertex) is a circuit.
A circuit with no repeated vertex is called a cycle.
The length of a walk trail, path or cycle is its number of edges.
A complete bipartite graph is a bipartite graph in
which each vertex in A is joined to each vertex in B
by just one edge. We denote the complete bipartite
graph with r black vertices and s white vertices by
Kr, s
: the graphs K1,3 , K2,3 , K3,3 and K4,3 are shown in
Fig. 1.37. You should check that Kr, s has r + s
vertices and rs edges
Definitions and Fundamental Concepts
Week 2: 9/3 -13/3/15

 1.4 Types of Graphs

 Trees, Undirected graphs, Simple graphs, Multigraphs, Pseudographs. Directed Graphs (Digraphs),
Directed Multigraphs, Bipartite, Complete Graphs, Cycles, Wheels, Cubes, Complete Bipartite
 1.5 Operations and properties
 1.6 Proof styles
1.4 Types of Graphs
 Trees,
 Undirected graphs,
 Simple graphs,
 Multigraphs,
 Pseudographs.
 Directed Graphs (Digraphs),
 Directed Multigraphs,
 Regular
 Bipartite,
 Complete Graphs,
 Cycles,
 Wheels,
 Cubes,
 Complete Bipartite
 Graph: A graph G = (V, E) consists of an arbitrary set of
objects V called vertices and a set E which contains
unordered pairs of distinct elements of V called edges.
 Trees
Definition: A graph having no cycles is said to be acyclic. A forest is
an acyclic graph. Definition: A tree is a connected graph without
any cycles, or a tree is a connected acyclic graph. The edges of a
tree are called branches. It follows immediately from the
definition that a tree has to be a simple graph (because self-loops
and parallel edges both form cycles). Figure 4.1(a) displays all
trees with fewer than six vertices.

Theorem 4.1 A graph is a tree if and only if there is

exactly one path between every pair of its vertices.

Definition 44 (Forest). An acyclic, graph, one not containing any cycles is

called a forest.

Definition 45 (Tree). A connected forest is called a tree.

Definition 46 (Leaf). The vertices of degree 1 of a tree.

 https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=HmQR8Xy9DeM
(Graph Theory)
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z-GfKbzvtBA
(Isomorphism)
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tL7l5E1NnS8
 https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=xozFOG8xQJw

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=71XbdtoG7P8
Undirected Graph
Simple graph
 A simple graph is a graph having no loops or multiple edges. In this case,
 each edge e in E(G) can be specifed by its endpoints u; v in V (G). Sometimes
 we write e = uv.
Multigraphs…have a loops…regular grap doesnot have
loops
Pseudographs.
Pseudographs.
Exercises

 Refer to Text book Wilson

 Page 25
Directed Multigraphs,
Regular

 Regular Graph: A graph in which every vertex has the same degree is called
a regular graph. If all vertices have degree k, the graph is said to be k-
regular.
Bipartite
Bipartite
 Complete Graphs
Complete Graph: The complete graph on n vertices Kn consists of the vertex set V = {v1,v2,…,vn}
and the edge set E containing all pairs (vi,vj) of vertices in V.
 A complete graph is a simple graph whose vertices are pairwise adjacent. The
complete graph with n vertices is denoted Kn
Complete Graphs
Cycles
Wheels
 a wheel graph Wn is a graph with n vertices (n ≥ 4), formed by connecting a single
vertex to all vertices of an (n-1)-cycle. The numerical notation for wheels is used
inconsistently in the literature: some authors instead use n to refer to the length of
the cycle, so that their Wn is the graph we denote Wn+1.[1] A wheel graph can also be
defined as the 1-skeleton of an (n-1)-gonal pyramid.
Cubes

vertices. Where d= degree

Complete Bipartite
Petersen Graph 1.1.36

 The petersen graph is the simple graph whose vertices are the 2-
element subsets of a 5-element set and whose edges are pairs of
disjoint 2-element subsets

Graph
Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 117
Theory
 Petersen Graph 1.1.37

 Assume: the set of 5-element be (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

 Then, 2-element subsets:
(1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) (3,4) (3,5) (4,5)

12
45: (4, 5)
35
45 25 34
13
Disjoint, so
24 connected
14
15
Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 23 Graph
118
Theory
Peterson Graph
 A Petersen graph is a graph with
10 vertices and 15 edges.
 Before we can talk about complete bipartite graphs, we must understand
bipartite graphs.
 An independent set in a graph is a set of vertices that are pairwise
nonadjacent.
 A graph G is bipartite if V (G) is the union of two disjoint (possibly empty)
independent sets, called partite sets of G.
 Similarly, a graph is k-partite if V (G) is the union of k disjoint independent
 sets.
Theorem: A graph is bipartite if and only if it has no
odd cycle. 1.2.18
 Examples:

A B
A B
F C

E D

D C

A B
A B
C D

C D
E F
Graph
Ch. 1. Fundamental Concept 126
Theory
Definitions and Fundamental Concepts

 Week 3: 16/3 -23/3/15

 1.7 Traversability Problems in Graphs:

 Königsberg Bridge problem and Eulerian graphs,
 Hamiltonian circuits and paths,
 and applications of Eularian and Hamiltonian Graphs
Traversability
 A network is said to be Traversable if you can draw it
without removing your pen from the paper and without
retracing the same arc twice.

Are these Graphs Traversable?

What is the difference between
the 3 graphs?

No Yes Yes
To be traversable it must have 2 or 0 odd nodes
 In order to start and end at the same node the network must be
Eularian (all nodes must be even).

 If exactly two nodes have odd order, the network is still

traversable, but you start and end at different nodes (and the
network is Semi-Eularian)

To be route for a
postman it must be
closed and so have
0 odd nodes
 Traversability
 A network is said to be Traversable if you can draw it without
removing your pen from the paper and without retracing the same arc
twice. It is Closed if you can start anywhere and finish at the start
point.

Are these Graphs Traversable? Are they closed?

Traversable? Yes Yes Yes

Closed? No Yes Yes
For each network, count the number of odd vertices and the
number of even vertices, then complete the table.

Network Number of even Number of odd Traversable? Closed?

vertices vertices
Notes…
 Ifthe graph in question is closed then such a
trail is easy to find. However, many graphs
are not closed and this is where the problem
becomes more interesting.

 Such a network can be made closed by linking

together pairs of odd nodes with additional
arcs. The effect of adding these extra arcs is
to make all nodes even and thus the network
is now closed.
This graph has four vertices of odd
order and so it is not closed or
traversable.
We need to pair the vertices together by adding an
extra edge to make the order of each vertex four. We
can join AB and CD, or AC and BD, or AD and BC.

In each case the graph is now closed.

[You only need to add one arc to be traversable]

Königsberg bridge problem
 The following problem, often referred to as the bridges of Königsberg problem, was
first solved by Euler in the eighteenth century. The problem was rather simple — the
town of Königsberg consists of two islands and seven bridges. Is it possible, by
beginning anywhere and ending anywhere, to walk through the town by crossing all
seven bridges but not crossing any bridge twice?

 We will first present some definitions and then present a theorem that Euler used to
show that it is in fact impossible to walk through the town and traverse all the
bridges only once.
Definitions
Eulerian trail: An Eulerian trail is a trail that visits every edge of the graph once and only
once. It can end on a vertex different from the one on which it began. A graph of this
kind is said to be traversable
Eulerian Circuit: An Eulerian circuit is an Eulerian trail that is a circuit. That is, it begins
and ends on the same vertex.

Eulerian Graph: A graph is called Eulerian when it contains an Eulerian circuit.

A vertex is odd if its degree is odd and even if its degree is even

Theorem: An Eulerian trail exists in a connected graph if

and only if there are either no odd vertices or two odd
vertices
Eulerian Graphs
Hamiltonian circuit and path
and applications of Eularian and Hamiltonian Graphs
Proof styles