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Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics deals with concepts of heat, temperature, and energy conversion. The first law of thermodynamics states that the total energy of an isolated system is constant; energy can be changed from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed. The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of any isolated system always increases, and that no process is possible in which the sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and its complete conversion into work. A Carnot cycle involves a system undergoing an idealized reversible thermodynamic cycle, and is used to determine the maximum possible efficiency of a heat engine.

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28 views28 pages

Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics deals with concepts of heat, temperature, and energy conversion. The first law of thermodynamics states that the total energy of an isolated system is constant; energy can be changed from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed. The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of any isolated system always increases, and that no process is possible in which the sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and its complete conversion into work. A Carnot cycle involves a system undergoing an idealized reversible thermodynamic cycle, and is used to determine the maximum possible efficiency of a heat engine.

Uploaded by

Shlok Mishra
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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THERMODYNAMICS

INTRODUCTION

Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals


with the concepts of heat and temperature and the
inter-conversion of heat and other forms of energy.
Thermodynamics is a macroscopic science. It deals
with bulk systems and does not go into the molecular
constitution of matter.
In winter, when we rub our palms together, we feel warmer; here
work done in rubbing produces the ‘heat’.

Conversely, in a steam engine, the ‘heat’ of the steam is used to


do useful work in moving the pistons, which in turn rotate the
wheels of the train.
On contact between a hot body and a cold body, the fluid (called
caloric) flowed from the colder to the hotter body!

When a horizontal pipe connects two tanks containing water up to


different heights. The flow continues until the levels of water in
the two tanks are the same.

Likewise, in the ‘caloric’ picture of heat, heat flows until the


‘caloric levels’ (i.e., the temperatures) equalise.
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
If we have A and B are two systems, There is no more energy
flow from one to another. We then say that the system A is in
thermal equilibrium with the system B.

(a) Systems A and B (two gases) separated by an adiabatic wall – an insulating wall that
does not allow flow of heat.
(b) The same systems A and B separated by a diathermic wall – a conducting wall that
allows heat to flow from one to another. In this case, thermal equilibrium is attained
in due course.
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Imagine two systems A and B, separated by an adiabatic wall,
while each is in contact with a third system C, via a conducting
wall

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics, which states that ‘two systems


in thermal equilibrium with a third system separately are in
thermal equilibrium with each other’.
HEAT, INTERNAL ENERGY AND WORK

 Heat
 Internal energy U of a system and

 Work
Heat: The thermo dynamical amount which transfer from hot
body to cold body

Temperature: This thermodynamic variable whose value is


equal for two systems in thermal equilibrium is called
temperature (T ).

Internal energy U: Internal energy is simply the sum of the


kinetic energies and potential energies of these molecules.

Work: Work is transfer of energy associated with forces acting


over change in a system’s macroscopic parameters.
heat and work are two different modes of altering the state of a
thermodynamic system and changing its internal energy.
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

It is simply the general law of conservation of energy applied to


any system

ΔQ = Heat supplied to the system by the surroundings


ΔW = Work done by the system on the surroundings
ΔU = Change in internal energy of the system

The general principle of conservation of energy then implies that


ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW

i.e. the energy (ΔQ) supplied to the system goes in partly to


increase the internal energy of the system (ΔU) and the rest in
work on the environment (ΔW).
ISOTHERMAL PROCESSES

For an isothermal process (T fixed), the ideal gas equation gives


PV = constant
Suppose an ideal gas goes isothermally from its initial state (P1,
V1) to the final state (P2, V2). At any intermediate stage with
pressure P and volume change from V to V + ΔV (ΔV small)
ΔW = P Δ V
P-V curves for isothermal and adiabatic processes of an ideal gas.
ADIABATIC PROCESSES
In an adiabatic process, the system is insulated from the
surroundings and heat absorbed or released is zero.
P V γ = const
where γ is the ratio of specific heats (ordinary or molar) at
constant pressure and at constant volume.
γ = Cp/ Cv
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Kelvin-Planck statement
No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of heat
from a reservoir and the complete conversion of the heat into
work.

Clausius statement
No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat
from a colder object to a hotter object.

It can be proved that the two statements above are completely


equivalent.
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE
PROCESSES

Imagine some process in which a thermodynamic system goes


from an initial state i to a final state f. During the process the
system absorbs heat Q from the surroundings and performs
work W on it. Can we reverse this process and bring both the
system and surroundings to their initial states with no other
effect anywhere
CONDITIONS FOR REVERSIBILITY
 The substance undergoing a reversible change must at all
instances be in thermodynamic equilibrium with its
surroundings. It means the pressure and temperatures of the
working substance must never differ appreciably from its
surroundings at any stage of the cycle of operation.
 All the processes taking place in the cycle of operation must be
infinitely slow.
 There should be complete absence of frictional forces.

 There should not be any loss of energy due to conduction,


convection or radiation during the cycle of operation.
HEAT ENGINE
Heat engine is a device by which a system is made to undergo a
cyclic process that results in conversion of heat to work.
Heat engines are used to convert heat into mechanical work. Sadi
Carnot (French) conceived a Theoretical engine which is free
from all the defects of practical engines. Its efficiency is
maximum and it is an ideal heat engine.
For any engine, consisting of Four parts
1. Source

2. Sink

3. Working Substance

4. Insulating Stand
 Source: The source should be at a fixed high temperature T 1
from which the heat engine can draw heat. It has infinite
thermal capacity and any amount of heat can be drawn from it
at constant temperature T1.
 Sink: The sink should be at a fixed lower temperature T 2 to
which any amount of heat can be rejected. It also has infinite
thermal capacity and its temperature remains constant at T 2.
 Working Substance: A cylinder with non-conducting sides
and conducting bottom contains the perfect gas as the working
substance. A perfect non- conducting and frictionless piston is
fitted into the cylinder. The working substance undergoes a
complete cyclic operation.
 Insulating Stand: A perfectly non- conducting stand is also
provided so that the working substance can undergo adiabatic
operation.
The efficiency (η) of a heat engine is defined by
CARNOT CYCLE

1. Isothermal expansion: by placing the system in contact with a


heat reservoir with temperature T1.
2. Adiabatic expansion to T2 < T1.
3. Isothermal compression: by placing the system in contact with
a heat reservoir with temperature T2.
4. Adiabatic compression from T2 to T1.
Efficiency: The efficiency of a system is the ratio of output to
input
 V2 
W  R  log  T1  T2 
 V1 
REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS

A refrigerator is the reverse of a heat engine. Here the working


substance extracts heat Q2 from the cold reservoir at
temperature T2, some external work W is done on it and heat
Q1 is released to the hot reservoir at temperature T1

The coefficient of performance (α) of a refrigerator is given by


THERMOGRAPHY AND ITS APPLICATIONS:

Thermography is a type of infrared imaging science.


Thermographic cameras detect radiation in the infrared range of
the electromagnetic spectrum (roughly 900–14,000 nanometers
or 0.9–14 µm) and produce images of that radiation, called
thermograms.
Applications:

 Condition monitoring
 Medical imaging

 Infrared Mammography

 Veterinary medicine

 Night vision

 Process control

 Nondestructive testing

 Surveillance in security, law enforcement and defence

 Chemical imaging

 Volcanology

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