Pointers

January 18, 2024 1

 Introduction

• A pointer is a variable that represents the

location (rather than the value) of a data item.
• They have a number of useful applications.
– Enables us to access a variable that is defined
outside the function.
– Can be used to pass information back and forth
between a function and its reference point.
– More efficient in handling data tables.
– Reduces the length and complexity of a program.
– Sometimes also increases the execution speed.

January 18, 2024 2

 Basic Concept

• Within the computer memory, every stored data

item occupies one or more contiguous memory
cells.
– The number of memory cells required to store a data
item depends on its type (char, int, double, etc.).
• Whenever we declare a variable, the system
allocates memory location(s) to hold the value of
the variable.
– Since every byte in memory has a unique address, this
location will also have its own (unique) address.

January 18, 2024 3

 Contd.

• Consider the statement

int xyz = 50;
– This statement instructs the compiler to allocate a
location for the integer variable xyz, and put the
value 50 in that location.
– Suppose that the address location chosen is 1380.

xyz  variable
50  value
1380  address

January 18, 2024 4

 Contd.
• During execution of the program, the system
always associates the name xyz with the
address 1380.
– The value 50 can be accessed by using either the
name xyz or the address 1380.
• Since memory addresses are simply numbers,
they can be assigned to some variables which
can be stored in memory.
– Such variables that hold memory addresses are
called pointers.
– Since a pointer is a variable, its value is also stored
in some memory location.
January 18, 2024 5
 Contd.

• Suppose we assign the address of xyz to a

variable p.
– p is said to point to the variable xyz.

Variable Value Address

xyz 50 1380 p = &xyz;
p 1380 2545

2545 1380 1380 50

p xyz
January 18, 2024 6
 Accessing the Address of a Variable
• The address of a variable can be determined
using the ‘&’ operator.
– The operator ‘&’ immediately preceding a variable
returns the address of the variable.
• Example:
p = &xyz;
– The address of xyz (1380) is assigned to p.
• The ‘&’ operator can be used only with a
simple variable or an array element.
&distance
&x[0]
&x[i-2]
January 18, 2024 7
 Contd.

• Following usages are illegal:

&235
• Pointing at constant.

int arr[20];
:
&arr;
• Pointing at array name.

&(a+b)
• Pointing at expression.

January 18, 2024 8

 Example

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a;
float b, c;
double d;
char ch;

a = 10; b = 2.5; c = 12.36; d = 12345.66; ch = ‘A’;

printf (“%d is stored in location %u \n”, a, &a) ;
printf (“%f is stored in location %u \n”, b, &b) ;
printf (“%f is stored in location %u \n”, c, &c) ;
printf (“%ld is stored in location %u \n”, d, &d) ;
printf (“%c is stored in location %u \n”, ch, &ch) ;
}

January 18, 2024 9

Output:

10 is stored in location 3221224908 a

2.500000 is stored in location 3221224904 b
12.360000 is stored in location 3221224900 c
12345.660000 is stored in location 3221224892 d
A is stored in location 3221224891 ch

Incidentally variables a,b,c,d and ch are allocated

to contiguous memory locations.

January 18, 2024 10

 Pointer Declarations
• Pointer variables must be declared before we
use them.
• General form:
data_type *pointer_name;
Three things are specified in the above
declaration:
1. The asterisk (*) tells that the variable pointer_name is a
pointer variable.
2. pointer_name needs a memory location.
3. pointer_name points to a variable of type data_type.

January 18, 2024 11

 Contd.

• Example:
int *count;
float *speed;
• Once a pointer variable has been declared, it
can be made to point to a variable using an
assignment statement like:
int *p, xyz;
:
p = &xyz;
– This is called pointer initialization.

January 18, 2024 12

 Things to Remember

• Pointer variables must always point to a data

item of the same type.
float x;
int *p;
:  will result in erroneous output
p = &x;
• Assigning an absolute address to a pointer
variable is prohibited.
int *count;
:
count = 1268;
January 18, 2024 13
 Accessing a Variable Through its Pointer

• Once a pointer has been assigned the address of

a variable, the value of the variable can be
accessed using the indirection operator (*).
int a, b;
int *p;
: Equivalent to b=a
p = &a;
b = *p;

January 18, 2024 14

 Example 1

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int a, b;
int c = 5; Equivalent
int *p;

a = 4 * (c + 5) ;

p = &c;
b = 4 * (*p + 5) ;
printf (“a=%d b=%d \n”, a, b) ;
}

January 18, 2024 15

 Example 2
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int x, y; *&xx
int *ptr;

x = 10 ;
ptr=&x;
ptr = &x ; &x&*ptr
y = *ptr ;
printf (“%d is stored in location %u \n”, x, &x) ;
printf (“%d is stored in location %u \n”, *&x, &x) ;
printf (“%d is stored in location %u \n”, *ptr, ptr) ;
printf (“%d is stored in location %u \n”, y, &*ptr) ;
printf (“%u is stored in location %u \n”, ptr, &ptr) ;
printf (“%d is stored in location %u \n”, y, &y) ;

*ptr = 25;
printf (“\nNow x = %d \n”, x);
}
January 18, 2024 16
Output: Address of x: 3221224908
Address of y: 3221224904

10 is stored in location 3221224908 Address of ptr: 3221224900

10 is stored in location 3221224908
10 is stored in location 3221224908
10 is stored in location 3221224908
3221224908 is stored in location 3221224900
10 is stored in location 3221224904

Now x = 25

January 18, 2024 17

 Pointer Expressions

• Like other variables, pointer variables can be

used in expressions.
• If p1 and p2 are two pointers, the following
statements are valid:
sum = *p1 + *p2 ;
prod = *p1 * *p2 ;
prod = (*p1) * (*p2) ;
*p1 = *p1 + 2;
x = *p1 / *p2 + 5 ;

January 18, 2024 18

 Contd.
• What are allowed in C?
– Add an integer to a pointer.
– Subtract an integer from a pointer.
– Subtract one pointer from another (related).
• If p1 and p2 are both pointers to the same array, them
p2–p1 gives the number of elements between p1 and p2.
• What are not allowed?
– Add two pointers.
p1 = p1 + p2 ;
– Multiply / divide a pointer in an expression.
p1 = p2 / 5 ;
p1 = p1 – p2 * 10 ;
January 18, 2024 19
 Scale Factor
• We have seen that an integer value can be
added to or subtracted from a pointer variable.
int *p1, *p2 ;
int i, j;
:
p1 = p1 + 1 ;
p2 = p1 + j ;
p2++ ;
p2 = p2 – (i + j) ;
• In reality, it is not the integer value which is
added/subtracted, but rather the scale factor
times the value.
January 18, 2024 20
 Contd.

Data Type Scale Factor

char 1
int 4
float 4
double 8

– If p1 is an integer pointer, then

p1++
will increment the value of p1 by 4.

January 18, 2024 21

 Example:
Returns torequired
no. of bytes find theforscale factors
data type representation
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
printf (“Number of bytes occupied by int is %d \n”, sizeof(int));
printf (“Number of bytes occupied by float is %d \n”, sizeof(float));
printf (“Number of bytes occupied by double is %d \n”, sizeof(double));
printf (“Number of bytes occupied by char is %d \n”, sizeof(char));
}

Output:

Number of bytes occupied by int is 4

Number of bytes occupied by float is 4
Number of bytes occupied by double is 8
Number of bytes occupied by char is 1

January 18, 2024 22

 Passing Pointers to a Function
• Pointers are often passed to a function as
arguments.
– Allows data items within the calling program to be
accessed by the function, altered, and then returned
to the calling program in altered form.
– Called call-by-reference (or by address or by
location).
• Normally, arguments are passed to a function
by value.
– The data items are copied to the function.
– Changes are not reflected in the calling program.

January 18, 2024 23

 Example: passing arguments by value
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{ a and b
int a, b; do not
a = 5 ; b = 20 ; swap
swap (a, b) ; Output
printf (“\n a = %d, b = %d”, a, b);
} a = 5, b = 20

void swap (int x, int y)

{
int t ;
t=x;
x=y; x and y swap
y=t;
}
January 18, 2024 24
 Example: passing arguments by reference
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{ *(&a) and *(&b)
int a, b; swap
a = 5 ; b = 20 ;
swap (&a, &b) ; Output
printf (“\n a = %d, b = %d”, a, b);
} a = 20, b = 5

void swap (int *x, int *y)

{
int t ;
t = *x ; *x and *y
*x = *y ; swap
*y = t ;
}
January 18, 2024 25
 // Function to sort the numbers using
pointers
#include <stdio.h> // print the numbers
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
void sort(int n, int* ptr) printf("%d ", *(ptr + i));
}
{
int i, j, t;
int main()
// Sort the numbers using pointers
{
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) { int n = 5;
int arr[] = { 0, 23, 14, 12, 9 };
for (j = i + 1; j < n; j++) {
if (*(ptr + j) < *(ptr + i)) { sort(n, arr);
t = *(ptr + i);
*(ptr + i) = *(ptr + j); return 0;
*(ptr + j) = t; }

}
}
}
January 18, 2024 26
 Pointers and Arrays

• When an array is declared,

– The compiler allocates a base address and sufficient
amount of storage to contain all the elements of the
array in contiguous memory locations.
– The base address is the location of the first element
(index 0) of the array.
– The compiler also defines the array name as a
constant pointer to the first element.

January 18, 2024 27

 Example
• Consider the declaration:
int x[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} ;
– Suppose that the base address of x is 2500, and each
integer requires 4 bytes.
Element Value Address
x[0] 1 2500
x[1] 2 2504
x[2] 3 2508
x[3] 4 2512
x[4] 5 2516

January 18, 2024 28

 Contd.

x  &x[0]  2500 ;

– p = x; and p = &x[0]; are equivalent.

– We can access successive values of x by using p++ or
p- - to move from one element to another.
• Relationship between p and x:
p = &x[0] = 2500
p+1 = &x[1] = 2504
p+2 = &x[2] = 2508 *(p+i) gives the
p+3 = &x[3] = 2512 value of x[i]
p+4 = &x[4] = 2516

January 18, 2024 29

 Example: function to find average
int *array
#include <stdio.h> float avg (int array[ ],int size)
main() {
{ int *p, i , sum = 0;
int x[100], k, n ;
p = array ; p[i]
scanf (“%d”, &n) ;
for (i=0; i<size; i++)
for (k=0; k<n; k++) sum = sum + *(p+i);
scanf (“%d”, &x[k]) ;
return ((float) sum / size);
printf (“\nAverage is %f”, }
avg (x, n));
}

January 18, 2024 30

 Structures Revisited

• Recall that a structure can be declared as:

struct stud {
int roll;
char dept_code[25];
float cgpa;
};
struct stud a, b, c;
• And the individual structure elements can be
accessed as:
a.roll , b.roll , c.cgpa , etc.

January 18, 2024 31

 Arrays of Structures

• We can define an array of structure records as

struct stud class[100] ;

• The structure elements of the individual

records can be accessed as:
class[i].roll
class[20].dept_code
class[k++].cgpa

January 18, 2024 32

 Example: Sorting by Roll Numbers
#include <stdio.h> for (k=0; k<n; k++)
struct stud scanf (“%d %s %f”, &class[k].roll,
{ class[k].dept_code, &class[k].cgpa);
int roll; for (j=0; j<n-1; j++)
char dept_code[25]; for (k=j+1; k<n; k++)
float cgpa; {
}; if (class[j].roll > class[k].roll)
{
main() t = class[j] ;
{ class[j] = class[k] ;
struc stud class[100], t; class[k] = t
int j, k, n; }
}
scanf (“%d”, &n); <<<< PRINT THE RECORDS >>>>
/* no. of students */ }

January 18, 2024 33

 Pointers and Structures

• You may recall that the name of an array

stands for the address of its zero-th element.
– Also true for the names of arrays of structure
variables.
• Consider the declaration:
struct stud {
int roll;
char dept_code[25];
float cgpa;
} class[100], *ptr ;

January 18, 2024 34

 – The name class represents the address of the zero-th
element of the structure array.
– ptr is a pointer to data objects of the type struct stud.
• The assignment
ptr = class ;
will assign the address of class[0] to ptr.
• When the pointer ptr is incremented by one
(ptr++) :
– The value of ptr is actually increased by sizeof(stud).
– It is made to point to the next record.

January 18, 2024 35

• Once ptr points to a structure variable, the
members can be accessed as:
ptr –> roll ;
ptr –> dept_code ;
ptr –> cgpa ;

– The symbol “–>” is called the arrow operator.

January 18, 2024 36

 Example
#include <stdio.h> swap_ref(_COMPLEX *a, _COMPLEX *b)
{
typedef struct { _COMPLEX tmp;
float real; tmp=*a;
float imag; *a=*b;
} _COMPLEX; *b=tmp;
}
main()
print(_COMPLEX *a)
{
{
_COMPLEX x={10.0,3.0}, y={-20.0,4.0};
printf("(%f,%f)\n",a->real,a->imag);
}
(10.000000,3.000000) print(&x); print(&y);
(-20.000000,4.000000) swap_ref(&x,&y);
(-20.000000,4.000000) print(&x); print(&y);
(10.000000,3.000000)
January 18, 2024 } 37
 A Warning

• When using structure pointers, we should take

care of operator precedence.
– Member operator “.” has higher precedence than “*”.
• ptr –> roll and (*ptr).roll mean the same thing.
• *ptr.roll will lead to error.

– The operator “–>” enjoys the highest priority among

operators.
• ++ptr –> roll will increment roll, not ptr.
• (++ptr) –> roll will do the intended thing.

January 18, 2024 38

 Structures and Functions

• A structure can be passed as argument to a

function.
• A function can also return a structure.
• The process shall be illustrated with the help of
an example.
– A function to add two complex numbers.

January 18, 2024 39

 Example: complex number addition
#include <stdio.h> struct complex add (x, y)
struct complex { struct complex x, y;
float re; {
float im; struct complex t;
};
t.re = x.re + y.re ;
main() t.im = x.im + y.im ;
{ return (t) ;
struct complex a, b, c; }
scanf (“%f %f”, &a.re, &a.im);
scanf (“%f %f”, &b.re, &b.im);
c = add (a, b) ;
printf (“\n %f %f”, c.re, c.im);
}

January 18, 2024 40

 Example: Alternative way using pointers
#include <stdio.h> void add (x, y, t)
struct complex { struct complex *x, *y, *t;
float re; {
float im; t->re = x->re + y->re ;
}; t->im = x->im + y->im ;
}
main()
{
struct complex a, b, c;
scanf (“%f %f”, &a.re, &a.im);
scanf (“%f %f”, &b.re, &b.im);
add (&a, &b, &c) ;
printf (“\n %f %f”, c,re, c.im);
}

January 18, 2024 41

 Dynamic Memory Allocation

January 18, 2024 42

 Basic Idea

• Many a time we face situations where data is

dynamic in nature.
– Amount of data cannot be predicted beforehand.
– Number of data item keeps changing during
program execution.
• Such situations can be handled more easily and
effectively using dynamic memory management
techniques.

January 18, 2024 43

 Contd.

• C language requires the number of elements in

an array to be specified at compile time.
– Often leads to wastage or memory space or program
failure.
• Dynamic Memory Allocation
– Memory space required can be specified at the time
of execution.
– C supports allocating and freeing memory
dynamically using library routines.

January 18, 2024 44

 Memory Allocation Process in C

Local variables Stack

Free memory Heap

Global variables Permanent storage

area
Instructions

January 18, 2024 45

 Contd.

• The program instructions and the global

variables are stored in a region known as
permanent storage area.
• The local variables are stored in another area
called stack.
• The memory space between these two areas is
available for dynamic allocation during
execution of the program.
– This free region is called the heap.
– The size of the heap keeps changing

January 18, 2024 46

 Memory Allocation Functions

• malloc
– Allocates requested number of bytes and returns a
pointer to the first byte of the allocated space.
• calloc
– Allocates space for an array of elements, initializes
them to zero and then returns a pointer to the
memory.
• free
Frees previously allocated space.
• realloc
– Modifies the size of previously allocated space.

January 18, 2024 47

 Allocating a Block of Memory

• A block of memory can be allocated using the

function malloc.
– Reserves a block of memory of specified size and
returns a pointer of type void.
– The return pointer can be assigned to any pointer
type.
• General format:
ptr = (type *) malloc (byte_size) ;

January 18, 2024 48

 Contd.

• Examples
p = (int *) malloc (100 * sizeof (int)) ;
• A memory space equivalent to “100 times the size of an
int” bytes is reserved.
• The address of the first byte of the allocated memory is
assigned to the pointer p of type int.
p

400 bytes of space

January 18, 2024 49

 Contd.

cptr = (char *) malloc (20) ;

• Allocates 10 bytes of space for the pointer cptr of type char.

sptr = (struct stud *) malloc (10 *

sizeof (struct stud));

January 18, 2024 50

 Points to Note

• malloc always allocates a block of contiguous

bytes.
– The allocation can fail if sufficient contiguous
memory space is not available.
– If it fails, malloc returns NULL.

January 18, 2024 51

 Example
#include <stdio.h> printf("Input heights for %d
Input the number of students. students \n",N);
main() for(i=0;i<N;i++)
5
{ scanf("%f",&height[i]);
Input heights for 5 students
int i,N;
23 24 25 26 27
float *height; for(i=0;i<N;i++)
Average height= 25.000000
float sum=0,avg; sum+=height[i];

printf("Input the number of students. \n"); avg=sum/(float) N;

scanf("%d",&N);
printf("Average height= %f \n",
height=(float *) malloc(N * sizeof(float)); avg);
}

January 18, 2024 52

 Releasing the Used Space

• When we no longer need the data stored in a

block of memory, we may release the block for
future use.
• How?
– By using the free function.
• General format:
free (ptr) ;
where ptr is a pointer to a memory block which
has been already created using malloc.

January 18, 2024 53

 Altering the Size of a Block

• Sometimes we need to alter the size of some

previously allocated memory block.
– More memory needed.
– Memory allocated is larger than necessary.
• How?
– By using the realloc function.
• If the original allocation is done by the statement
ptr = malloc (size) ;
then reallocation of space may be done as
ptr = realloc (ptr, newsize) ;
January 18, 2024 54
 Contd.

– The new memory block may or may not begin at the

same place as the old one.
• If it does not find space, it will create it in an entirely
different region and move the contents of the old block into
the new block.
– The function guarantees that the old data remains
intact.
– If it is unable to allocate, it returns NULL and frees
the original block.

January 18, 2024 55

January 18, 2024 56
 Pointer to Pointer

• Example:
int **p;
p=(int **) malloc(3 * sizeof(int *));

p[0]
p int ** int *
p[1] int *
int *

p[2]

January 18, 2024 57

 2-D Array Allocation
#include <stdio.h> void read_data(int **p,int h,int w)
#include <stdlib.h> {
int i,j;
int **allocate(int h, int w) for(i=0;i<h;i++)
{ for(j=0;j<w;j++)
int **p; Allocate array scanf ("%d",&p[i][j]);
int i,j; of pointers }

Elements accessed
p=(int **) calloc(h, sizeof (int *) );
like 2-D array elements.
for(i=0;i<h;i++)
p[i]=(int *) calloc(w,sizeof (int));
return(p);
} Allocate array of
integers for each
January 18, 2024 58
row
 2-D Array: Contd.
void print_data(int **p,int h,int w) main()
{ {
int i,j; int **p;
for(i=0;i<h;i++) int M,N;
{
for(j=0;j<w;j++) printf("Give M and N \n");
printf("%5d ",p[i][j]);Give M and N scanf("%d%d",&M,&N);
printf("\n"); 33 p=allocate(M,N);
} 123 read_data(p,M,N);
} 456 printf("\n The array read as \n");
789 print_data(p,M,N);
}
The array read
as
January 18, 2024 1 2 3 59
4 5 6