CH 9
CH 9
■ Background
■ Swapping
■ Contiguous Allocation
■ Paging
■ Segmentation
■ Segmentation with Paging
■ Program must be brought into memory and placed within
a process for it to be run.
■ Input queue – collection of processes on the disk that are
waiting to be brought into memory to run the program.
■ User programs go through several steps before being
run.
Address binding of instructions and data to memory addresses can
happen at three different stages.
■ Compile time: If memory location known a priori,
absolute code can be generated; must recompile
code if starting location changes.
■ Load time: Must generate relocatable code if memory
location is not known at compile time.
■ Execution time: Binding delayed until run time if the
process can be moved during its execution from one
memory segment to another. Need hardware support for
address maps (e.g., base and limit registers).
■ The concept of a logical address space that is bound to a
separate physical address space is central to proper
memory management.
✦ Logical address (La)– generated by the CPU for a program;
also referred to as virtual address.
✦ Physical address (Pa)– address seen by the memory unit.
(Pa) corresponding to these (La)
■ Logical and physical addresses are the same in compile
time and loadtime addressbinding schemes; logical
(virtual) and physical addresses differ in executiontime
addressbinding scheme.
■ Hardware device that maps virtual to physical address.
■ In MMU scheme, the value in the relocation register is
added to every address generated by a user process at
the time it is sent to memory.
■ The user program deals with logical addresses; it never
sees the real physical addresses.
Base Register
Starting Addr
Of the Prog
■ Routine (Modules of the Prog) are not loaded until they
are called
■ Better memoryspace utilization; unused routine is never
loaded.
■ Useful when large amounts of code are needed to handle
infrequently occurring cases.
■ No special support from the operating system is required
implemented through program design.
■ Linking postponed until execution time.
■ Small piece of code, stub, used to locate the appropriate
memoryresident library routine.
■ Stub
■ Stub replaces itself with the address of the routine, and
executes the routine.
■ Operating system needed to check if routine is in
processes’ memory address.
■ Dynamic linking is particularly useful for libraries.
■ Where libraries refer to Language Libraries
■ Keep in memory only those instructions and data that are
needed at any given time.
■ Needed when process is larger than amount of memory
allocated to it.
■ Implemented by user, no special support needed from
operating system, programming design of overlay
structure is complex
■ A process can be swapped temporarily out of memory to a
backing store, and then brought back into memory for continued
execution.
■ Backing store – fast disk large enough to accommodate copies
of all memory images for all users; must provide direct access to
these memory images.
■ Roll out, roll in – swapping variant used for prioritybased
scheduling algorithms; lowerpriority process is swapped out so
higherpriority process can be loaded and executed.
■ Major part of swap time is transfer time; total transfer time is
directly proportional to the amount of memory swapped.
■ Modified versions of swapping are found on many systems, i.e.,
UNIX, Linux, and Windows.
■ Main memory usually into two partitions:
✦ operating system
✦ User processes.
■ Singlepartition allocation
✦ Relocationregister scheme used to protect user processes
from each other, and from changing operatingsystem code
and data.
✦ Relocation register contains value of smallest physical
address; limit register contains range of logical addresses –
each logical address must be less than the limit register.
■ Multiplepartition allocation
✦ Hole – block of available memory; holes of various size
are scattered throughout memory.
✦ When a process arrives, it is allocated memory from a hole
large enough to accommodate it.
✦ Operating system maintains information about:
a) allocated partitions b) free partitions (hole)
OS OS OS OS
process 8 process 10
How to satisfy a request of size n from a list of free holes.
■ Firstfit: Allocate the first hole that is big enough.
■ Bestfit: Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough;
must search entire list, unless ordered by size.
Produces the smallest leftover hole.
■ Worstfit: Allocate the largest hole; must also search
entire list. Produces the largest leftover hole.
Firstfit and bestfit better than worstfit in terms of
speed and storage utilization.
■ External Fragmentation – total memory space exists to
satisfy a request, but it is not contiguous.
■ Internal Fragmentation – allocated memory may be
slightly larger than requested memory; this size
difference is memory internal to a partition, but not being
used.
■ Reduce external fragmentation by compaction
✦ Shuffle memory contents to place all free memory together
in one large block.
✦ Compaction is possible only if relocation is dynamic, and is
done at execution time.
■ Logical address space of a process can be noncontiguous;
process is allocated physical memory whenever the latter is
available.
■ Divide physical memory into fixedsized blocks called frames
(size is power of 2, between 512 bytes and 8192 bytes).
■ Divide logical memory into blocks of same size called pages.
■ Keep track of all free frames.
■ To run a program of size n pages, need to find n free frames
and load program.
■ Set up a page table to translate logical to physical addresses.
■ Internal fragmentation.
■ Address generated by CPU is divided into:
✦ Page number (p) – used as an index into a page table which
contains base address of each page in physical memory.
✦ Page offset (d) – combined with base address to define the
physical memory address that is sent to the memory unit.
Offset=Base Addr
Here Page 3 Is at a
Difference of 7 from 0
ie 0+7=7 is the
Physical addr
Before allocation After allocation
■ Page table is kept in main memory.
■ Pagetable base register (PTBR) points to the page table.
■ Pagetable length register (PRLR) indicates size of the
page table.
■ In this scheme every data/instruction access
requires two memory accesses. One for the page table
and one for the data/instruction.
■ The two memory access problem can be solved by the
use of a special fastlookup hardware cache called
associative memory or translation lookaside buffers
(TLBs)
■ Associative memory – parallel search
Page # Frame #
Address translation (A´, A´´)
✦ If A´ is in associative register, get frame # out.
✦ Otherwise get frame # from page table in memory
■ Associative Lookup = ε time unit
■ Assume memory cycle time is 1 microsecond
■ Hit ratio – percentage of times that a page number is
found in the associative registers; ration related to
number of associative registers.
■ Hit ratio = α
■ Effective Access Time (EAT)
EAT = (1 + ε) α + (2 + ε)(1 – α)
= 2 + ε – α
■ Memory protection implemented by associating
protection bit with each frame.
■ Validinvalid bit attached to each entry in the page table:
✦ “valid” indicates that the associated page is in the process’
logical address space, and is thus a legal page.
✦ “invalid” indicates that the page is not in the process’ logical
address space.
■ Hierarchical Paging
■ Hashed Page Tables
■ Inverted Page Tables
■ Break up the logical address space into multiple page
tables.
■ A simple technique is a twolevel page table.
■ A logical address (on 32bit machine with 4K page size) is
divided into:
✦ a page number consisting of 20 bits.
✦ a page offset consisting of 12 bits.
■ Since the page table is paged, the page number is further
divided into:
✦ a 10bit page number.
✦ a 10bit page offset.
■ Thus, a logical address is as follows:
page number page offset
pi p2 d
10 10 12
where pi is an index into the outer page table, and p2 is the
displacement within the page of the outer page table.
Frames
■ Addresstranslation scheme for a twolevel 32bit paging
architecture
■ Common in address spaces > 32 bits.
■ The virtual page number is hashed into a page table. This
page table contains a chain of elements hashing to the
same location.
■ Virtual page numbers are compared in this chain
searching for a match. If a match is found, the
corresponding physical frame is extracted.
■ One entry for each real page of memory.
■ Entry consists of the virtual address of the page stored in
that real memory location, with information about the
process that owns that page.
■ Decreases memory needed to store each page table, but
increases time needed to search the table when a page
reference occurs.
■ Use hash table to limit the search to one — or at most a
few — pagetable entries.
■ Shared code
✦ One copy of readonly (reentrant) code shared among
processes (i.e., text editors, compilers, window systems).
✦ Shared code must appear in same location in the logical
address space of all processes.
■ Private code and data
✦ Each process keeps a separate copy of the code and data.
✦ The pages for the private code and data can appear
anywhere in the logical address space.
■ Memorymanagement scheme that supports user view of
memory.
■ A program is a collection of segments. A segment is a logical
unit such as:
main program,
procedure,
function,
method,
object,
local variables, global variables,
common block,
stack,
symbol table, arrays
4
1
3 2
4
user space physical memory space
■ Logical address consists of a two tuple:
<segmentnumber, offset>,
■ Segment table – maps twodimensional physical
addresses; each table entry has:
✦ base – contains the starting physical address where the
segments reside in memory.
✦ limit – specifies the length of the segment.
■ Segmenttable base register (STBR) points to the
segment table’s location in memory.
■ Segmenttable length register (STLR) indicates number
of segments used by a program;
segment number s is legal if s < STLR.
■ Relocation.
✦ dynamic
✦ by segment table
■ Sharing.
✦ shared segments
✦ same segment number
■ Allocation.
✦ first fit/best fit
✦ external fragmentation
■ Protection. With each entry in segment table associate:
✦ validation bit = 0 ⇒ illegal segment
✦ read/write/execute privileges
■ Protection bits associated with segments; code sharing
occurs at segment level.
■ Since segments vary in length, memory allocation is a
dynamic storageallocation problem.
■ A segmentation example is shown in the following
diagram
■ The MULTICS system solved problems of external
fragmentation and lengthy search times by paging the
segments.
■ Solution differs from pure segmentation in that the
segmenttable entry contains not the base address of the
segment, but rather the base address of a page table for
this segment.
■ As shown in the following diagram, the Intel 386 uses
segmentation with paging for memory management with a
twolevel paging scheme.