Chapter 4

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND

INTERPRETATION OF DATA
CHAPTER 4 features the following:

1.Statistical Tables and

Graphs
2.Textual Presentation
3.Inferences or
Interpretation
PRESENTATION OF DATA
Presentation – a way of
arranging data into
logical, chronological
and significant
categories and
classifications.
3 WAYS OF PRESENTING DATA:
1. TABULAR
2. GRAPHICAL
3. TEXTUAL
TABULAR PRESENTATION OF DATA

TABLES organize and

compress data into
standardized forms.
They facilitate the study
and interpretation.
ADVANTAGES OF USING TABULAR DATA

1. Researchers need to
give little explanation
only since data in tables
are arranged and
grouped systematically
ADVANTAGES OF USING TABULAR DATA

2. Readers can
comprehend and
interpret information
easily because they can
see relationships of
data at once
ADVANTAGES OF USING TABULAR DATA

3. Tables can present

ideas that are
understood even
without reading the
textual presentation.
Constructing a table
Tables include:
1. Number
2. Title
3. Heading
4. Body
5. Notes
NUMBER
•Each table in the research paper
must be numbered using ARABIC
NUMERALS.
•Tables must be numbered and
continuously through all the
chapters.
•Do not use suffix letters (e.g. Table
3a, 3b, 3c); instead, combine the
NUMBER
•Tables in the appendices must be
numbered separately from the
text, identify them with capital
letters and Arabic numerals (e.g.
Table A1, Table B2)
•If the paper contains only 1 table,
the number is unnecessary. Only
the initial letter of the word
“Table” is capitalized.
TITLE
-should be clear and
concise (should identify
the table briefly). It
need not give back
information or describe
the results.
TITLE
-When appropriate, you may
use the title to explain an
abbreviation parenthetically.
Comparison of Median Income of
Adopted Children (AC) v. Foster
Children (FC)
TITLE
The modern way of
writing titles omits the
words Frequency and
Percentage/Distribution
of/According to
TITLE
•should be written in
italicized title case written
2 spaces below the table
number.
•Written in inverted pyramid
format, paragraph form or
block style
TITLE
•In a paragraph form, the first
word of the table is indented
five spaces and the
succeeding lines are flushed
with the left margin, while in
block style, the title is
flushed with the left margin
TITLE
•have content (principal) words
in upper case initials and non-
content words (articles,
coordinate conjunctions,
prepositions and infinitive to)
in lower case letter except
those with more than 5
letters.
TITLE

•written in single-
space captions with 2
or more lines.
•Not in question form
Note: YOU SHOULD
BE CONSISTENT IN
YOUR CHOICE OF
TABLE FORMAT
THROUGHOUT THE
PAPER.
HEADING
•Keep headings clear and
brief. The heading should
not be much wider than the
widest entry in the column.
Use of standard
abbreviations can aid in
achieving that goal.
HEADING
•Stub headings describe the
lefthand column, or stub
column, which usually lists
major independent variables.
•Column headings describe
entries below them, applying
to just one column.
HEADING
•Column spanners are headings
that describe entries below them,
applying to two or more columns
which each have their own column
heading. Column spanners are
often stacked on top of column
headings and together are
called decked heads.
HEADING
•Table Spanners cover the
entire width of the table,
allowing for more divisions or
combining tables with
identical column headings.
They are the only type of
heading that may be plural.
HEADING
•All columns must have
headings, written in
sentence case and using
singular language (Item
rather than Items) unless
referring to a group (Men,
Women).
HEADING
•Each column’s items should
be parallel (i.e., every item
in a column labeled “%”
should be a percentage and
does not require the %
symbol, since it’s already
indicated in the heading).
BODY
•the main part of the table, which
includes all the reported
information organized in cells
(intersections of rows and
columns).
•Entries should be center aligned
unless left aligning them would
make them easier to read (longer
entries, usually).
BODY
•Word entries in the body
should use sentence case.
•Leave cells blank if the
element is not applicable or if
data were not obtained; use a
dash in cells and a general
note if it is necessary to
explain why cells are blank.
BODY
• In reporting the data, consistency
is key: Numerals should be
expressed to a consistent number
of decimal places that is
determined by the precision of
measurement.
• Never change the unit of
measurement or the number of
decimal places in the same column.
NOTES
General notes explain,
qualify or provide
information about the table
as a whole. Put explanations
of abbreviations, symbols,
etc. here.
General Notes
• Example: Note. The racial categories used by
the US Census (African-American, Asian
American, Latinos/-as, Native-American, and
Pacific Islander) have been collapsed into the
category “non-White.” E = excludes
respondents who self-identified as “White” and
at least one other “non-White” race.
NOTES
Specific notes explain, qualify or
provide information about a particular
column, row, or individual entry. To
indicate specific notes, use
superscript lowercase letters
(e.g. a, b, c), and order the superscripts
from left to right, top to bottom. Each
table’s first footnote must be the
superscript a.
Specific Notes
• n = 823. One participant in this
a b

group was diagnosed with

schizophrenia during the survey.
NOTES
Probability notes provide the reader with
the results of the tests for statistical
significance. Asterisks indicate the
values for which the null hypothesis is
rejected, with the probability (p value)
specified in the probability note. Such
notes are required only when relevant to
the data in the table. Consistently use
the same number of asterisks for a given
alpha level throughout your paper.
Probability notes
If you need to distinguish
between two-tailed and one-
tailed tests in the same table,
use asterisks for two-
tailed p values and an alternate
symbol (such as daggers) for
one-tailed p values.
Probability notes
Examples:
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001

*p < .05, two-tailed. **p < .01, two-tailed.

†p <.05, one-tailed. ††p < .01, one-tailed.
BORDERS
• Tables should only include borders
and lines that are needed for clarity
(i.e., between elements of a decked
head, above column spanners,
separating total rows, etc.). Do not
use vertical borders, and do not use
borders around each cell. Spacing
and strict alignment is typically
enough to clarify relationships
TABLES FROM OTHER SOURCES
•If using tables from an external
source, copy the structure of the
original exactly, and cite the
source in accordance with
APA style.
TABLE CHECKLIST:
• Is the table necessary?
• Does it belong in the print and electronic
versions of the article, or can it go in an
online supplemental file?
• Are all comparable tables presented
consistently?
• Are all tables numbered with Arabic
numerals in the order they are mentioned
in the text? Is the table number bold and
left-aligned?
TABLE CHECKLIST:
• Are all tables referred to in the text?
• Is the title brief but explanatory? Is it
presented in italicized title case and
left-aligned?
• Does every column have a column
heading? Are column headings
centered?
• Are all abbreviations; special use of
italics, parentheses, and dashes; and
special symbols explained?
TABLE CHECKLIST:
• Are the notes organized according to the
convention of general, specific,
probability?
• Are table borders correctly used (top and
bottom of table, beneath column
headings, above table spanners)?
• Does the table use correct line spacing
(double for the table number, title, and
notes; single, one and a half, or double for
the body)?
TABLE CHECKLIST:
• Are entries in the left column left-aligned beneath
the centered stub heading? Are all other column
headings and cell entries centered?
• Are confidence intervals reported for all major point
estimates?
• Are all probability level values correctly identified,
and are asterisks attached to the appropriate table
entries? Is a probability level assigned the same
number of asterisks in all the tables in the same
document?
• If the table or its data are from another source, is
the source properly cited? Is permission necessary
to reproduce the table?
FIGURES

include graphs, charts,

drawings, maps, plots, and
photos. Just like tables, figures
should supplement the text and
should be both understandable
on their own and referenced
fully in the text.
FIGURES
• In preparing figures, communication
and readability must be the ultimate
criteria. Design properly done is
inconspicuous, almost invisible,
because it supports communication.
Design improperly, or amateurishly,
done draws the reader’s attention
from the data, and makes him or her
question the author’s credibility.
FIGURES
•Line drawings are usually a good
option for readability and
simplicity; for photographs, high
contrast between background and
focal point is important, as well as
cropping out extraneous detail to
help the reader focus on the
important aspects of the photo.
PARTS OF A FIGURE

1.Number
2.Title
3.Image
4.Legends
5.Notes
NUMBER
•All figures that are part of the
main text require a number
using Arabic numerals (Figure
1, Figure 2, etc.). Numbers are
assigned based on the order in
which figures appear in the
text and are bolded and left
aligned.
TITLE
•Under the number, write the
title of the figure in
italicized title case. The
title should be brief, clear,
and explanatory, and both
the title and number should
be double spaced.
IMAGE
• The image of the figure is the body,
and it is positioned underneath the
number and title. The image should be
legible in both size and resolution;
fonts should be sans serif,
consistently sized, and between 8-14
pt. Title case should be used for axis
labels and other headings;
descriptions within figures should be
in sentence case.
IMAGE
• Shading and color should be limited for
clarity; use patterns along with color and
check contrast between colors with free
online checkers to ensure all users
(people with color vision deficiencies or
readers printing in grayscale, for
instance) can access the content.
Gridlines and 3-D effects should be
avoided unless they are necessary for
clarity or essential content information.
LEGEND
•Legends, or keys, explain symbols,
styles, patterns, shading, or colors
in the image. Words in the legend
should be in title case; legends
should go within or underneath the
image rather than to the side. Not
all figures will require a legend.
NOTES
• clarify the content of the figure; like tables,
notes can be general, specific, or
probability.
• General notes explain units of
measurement, symbols, and abbreviations,
or provide citation information.
• Specific notes identify specific elements
using superscripts;
• Probability notes explain statistical
significance of certain values.
FIGURES CHECKLIST:
• Is the figure necessary?
• Does the figure belong in the print and
electronic versions of the article, or is
it supplemental?
• Is the figure simple, clean, and free of
extraneous detail?
• Is the figure title descriptive of the
content of the figure? Is it written in
italic title case and left aligned?
FIGURES CHECKLIST:
• Are all elements of the figure clearly
labeled?
• Are the magnitude, scale, and direction of
grid elements clearly labeled?
• Are parallel figures or equally important
figures prepared according to the same
scale?
• Are the figures numbered consecutively
with Arabic numerals? Is the figure
number bold and left aligned?
FIGURES CHECKLIST:
• Has the figure been formatted properly? Is the
font sans serif in the image portion of the
figure and between sizes 8 and 14?
• Are all abbreviations and special symbols
explained?
• If the figure has a legend, does it appear
within or below the image? Are the legend’s
words written in title case?
• Are the figure notes in general, specific, and
probability order? Are they double-spaced, left
aligned, and in the same font as the paper?
FIGURES CHECKLIST:
• Are all figures mentioned in the text?
• Has written permission for print and electronic
reuse been obtained? Is proper credit given in
the figure caption?
• Have all substantive modifications to
photographic images been disclosed?
• Are the figures being submitted in a file format
acceptable to the publisher?
• Have the files been produced at a sufficiently
high resolution to allow for accurate
reproduction?
Table is separated from the
textual presentation by 2
spaces. If the table succeeds
the textual presentation, there
should be 3 spaces in between
the last line of the text and the
table number.
TEXTUAL PRESENTATION OF DATA
-involves using statements
with number to describe a
given data.
-aims to highlight some
important data and
supplement the tabular or
graphical presentation
 Researchers of the study examining the impact of paternal alcoholism
on children have investigated various aspects of the offspring's response. The
table presented below sums up its data collection.

1. Identify the most significant data point in this table.

TEXTUAL PRESENTATION:
Out of the 50 children of alcoholics
(COAs), 16 or 32% would tend to react
to paternal alcoholism with anger while
eight (8) or 16% with avoidance.
Twenty-one (21) or 42% of the
respondents, however, would react with
silence and 5 or 10% with nurture.
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
INTERPRETATION OR
INFERENCE follows the
textual presentation of
each table in the
research.
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
-It refers to the task of
drawing inferences from
the collected facts after
an analytical and or
experimental study.
Interpretation must have 3 of the ff:
1. Condition
2. Possible cause of the
condition. This refers
to the reason for the
existence of the
condition discovered.
Interpretation must have 3 of the ff:
3. Possible effect of the
condition. This refers to
the result of the
existence of the
condition discovered.
Interpretation must have 3 of the ff:
4. The measures to remedy
the unsatisfactory condition
or to strengthen the
favorable one. These are
actions or suggestions to be
undertaken in response to
the existing condition.
Interpretation must have 3 of the ff:
5. Comparison of findings
with those of previous
studies. This is the similar
finding confirming the result
of previous researches, or
theory of an expert in the
field.
Guidelines in Preparing Chapter 4
1. Leave 1 inch from the top
2. Type CHAPTER 4 in upper
case letters
3. Leave 2 spaces up to the
bottom of the page
Guidelines in Preparing Chapter 4
4. Type Presentation,
Analysis and Interpretation
of Data
5. Indent 5 spaces.
Write a paragraph
describing the nature of
Guidelines in Preparing Chapter 4
6. Present the first table
followed by its textual
presentation and
interpretation.
Guidelines in Preparing Chapter 4
7. Do step 6 until all
tables are presented
analyzed and
interpreted.
 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
CHAPTER 5
A brief explanation of what
recommendations or conclusions from
observed data can be made from your
research and the implications and
indicate what further research you feel
is needed, what approach and why.
CHAPTER 5
In the case of hypothecation,
was the hypothesis proven
and, if not, what potential
alternative hypotheses may
need to be explored.
CHAPTER 5
This is the last chapter of the
thesis and the most important
part because it is where the
findings and the whole research
for that matter, are summarized;
CHAPTER 5
-generalizations in the form of
conclusions are made; and the
recommendations for the solutions
of problems discovered in the study
are addressed to those concerned.
CONCLUSION
This section explains things that will lead
you to significant points, insights, or
understanding or conclusions that derive
their validity, credibility or acceptability
from the factual evidence gathered
during the data-collection stage.
CONCLUSION
- It is where the significance of
the results; that is, whether or
not these are the right answers to
the research questions or the
means of hypotheses acceptance
or rejection.
CONCLUSION
- Your assessment of the data in
relation to the findings of previous
research studies is also given a space
in this section.
CONCLUSION - intended to
help the reader understand why
your research should matter to
them after they have finished
reading the paper.
- a synthesis of key points.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCLUSIONS

1. Conclusions are inferences,

deductions, abstractions, implications,
interpretations, general statements,
and/or generalizations based upon the
findings.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCLUSIONS

2. Conclusions should appropriately

answer the specific questions raised at
the beginning of the investigation in the
order they are given under the statement
of the problem.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCLUSIONS

3. Conclusions should point out

what were factually learned from
the inquiry.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONCLUSIONS

4. Conclusions should be
formulated concisely, that is,
brief and short, yet they convey
all the necessary information
IMPORTANCE OF A GOOD CONCLUSION
1.Presenting the last word on the
issues you raised in your paper.
2.Summarizing your thoughts and
conveying the larger implications
of your study.
IMPORTANCE OF A GOOD CONCLUSION
3. Demonstrating the importance
of your ideas.
4. Introducing possible new or
expanded ways of thinking about
the research problem.
GENERAL RULES IN WRITING THE
CONCLUSION
•State your conclusions in clear,
simple language.
•Do not simply reiterate your
results or the discussion.
DANGERS TO AVOID IN MAKING CONCLUSIONS

1. Bias
2. Incorrect generalization
3. Incorrect deduction
4. Incorrect comparison
DANGERS TO AVOID IN MAKING CONCLUSIONS

5. Abuse of correlation data

6. Limited information furnished
7. Misleading
 RECOMMENDATION – this
section gives something that will
expand or extend one’s
understanding of the conclusions
raised earlier, such as suggesting a
solution to the problem or
recommending a further research on
the subject.
 2 FORMS OF RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Recommendations for further study
2. Recommendations for change

NOTE: Each recommendation should

trace directly to a conclusion.
GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE RECOMMENDATION

1. It should have the aim

and effort to solve problems
in the study.
GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE RECOMMENDATION

2. It should ensure a continuous

benefit being accorded to the
universe – mankind involved.
GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE RECOMMENDATION

3. It must be supported by the

statistical findings from the
data analysis.
 ABSTRACT – consists of 100-150
words
-presents a summary of the research
that makes clear the background,
objectives, significance, methodologies,
results, and conclusions of the research
study.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF AN ABSTRACT
1) Motivation/problem statement: Why do
we care about the problem? What practical,
scientific, theoretical or artistic gap is your
research filling?
2) Methods/procedure/approach: What did
you actually do to get your results?
BASIC COMPONENTS OF AN ABSTRACT
3) Results/findings/product: As a result of
completing the above procedure, what did
you learn/invent/create?
4) Conclusion/implications: What are the
larger implications of your findings,
especially for the problem/gap identified in
step 1?