Carnegie Mellon

Exceptional Control Flow:

Exceptions and Processes
15-213 : Introduction to Computer Systems
14th Lecture, Oct. 15, 2015

Instructors:
Randal E. Bryant and David R. O’Hallaron

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Today
 Exceptional Control Flow
 Exceptions
 Processes
 Process Control

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Control Flow
 Processors do only one thing:
 From startup to shutdown, a CPU simply reads and executes
(interprets) a sequence of instructions, one at a time
 This sequence is the CPU’s control flow (or flow of control)

Physical control flow

<startup>
inst1
Time inst2
inst3
…
instn
<shutdown>
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Altering the Control Flow

 Up to now: two mechanisms for changing control flow:
 Jumps and branches
 Call and return
React to changes in program state

 Insufficient for a useful system:

Difficult to react to changes in system state
 Data arrives from a disk or a network adapter
 Instruction divides by zero
 User hits Ctrl-C at the keyboard
 System timer expires

 System needs mechanisms for “exceptional control flow”

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Exceptional Control Flow

 Exists at all levels of a computer system
 Low level mechanisms
 1. Exceptions
 Change in control flow in response to a system event
(i.e., change in system state)
 Implemented using combination of hardware and OS software

 Higher level mechanisms

 2. Process context switch
Implemented by OS software and hardware timer

 3. Signals
 Implemented by OS software
 4. Nonlocal jumps: setjmp() and longjmp()
 Implemented by C runtime library

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Today
 Exceptional Control Flow
 Exceptions
 Processes
 Process Control

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Exceptions
 An exception is a transfer of control to the OS kernel in response
to some event (i.e., change in processor state)
 Kernel is the memory-resident part of the OS
 Examples of events: Divide by 0, arithmetic overflow, page fault, I/O
request completes, typing Ctrl-C

User code Kernel code

Event I_current Exception

I_next Exception processing
by exception handler
• Return to I_current
• Return to I_next
• Abort

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Exception Tables
Exception
numbers

Code for  Each type of event has a

exception handler 0 unique exception number k
Exception Code for
Table exception handler 1
0
 k = index into exception table
1
Code for (a.k.a. interrupt vector)
2 exception handler 2
...
n-1 ...  Handler k is called each time
exception k occurs
Code for
exception handler n-1

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Asynchronous Exceptions (Interrupts)

 Caused by events external to the processor
 Indicated by setting the processor’s interrupt pin
 Handler returns to “next” instruction

 Examples:
 Timer interrupt
Every few ms, an external timer chip triggers an interrupt

 Used by the kernel to take back control from user programs
 I/O interrupt from external device
 Hitting Ctrl-C at the keyboard
 Arrival of a packet from a network
 Arrival of data from a disk

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Synchronous Exceptions
 Caused by events that occur as a result of executing an
instruction:
 Traps
Intentional

 Examples: system calls, breakpoint traps, special instructions
 Returns control to “next” instruction
 Faults
 Unintentional but possibly recoverable
 Examples: page faults (recoverable), protection faults
(unrecoverable), floating point exceptions
 Either re-executes faulting (“current”) instruction or aborts
 Aborts
 Unintentional and unrecoverable
 Examples: illegal instruction, parity error, machine check
 Aborts current program
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System Calls
 Each x86-64 system call has a unique ID number
 Examples:
Number Name Description
0 read Read file
1 write Write file
2 open Open file
3 close Close file
4 stat Get info about file
57 fork Create process
59 execve Execute a program
60 _exit Terminate process
62 kill Send signal to process

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System Call Example: Opening File

 User calls: open(filename, options)
 Calls __open function, which invokes system call instruction syscall

00000000000e5d70 <__open>:
...
e5d79: b8 02 00 00 00 mov $0x2,%eax # open is syscall #2
e5d7e: 0f 05 syscall # Return value in %rax
e5d80: 48 3d 01 f0 ff ff cmp $0xfffffffffffff001,%rax
...
e5dfa: c3 retq

User code Kernel code  %rax contains syscall number

 Other arguments in %rdi,
syscall Exception %rsi, %rdx, %r10, %r8,
cmp %r9
Open file  Return value in %rax
Returns
 Negative value is an error
corresponding to negative
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Fault Example: Page Fault int a[1000];

 User writes to memory location main ()
{
 That portion (page) of user’s memory a[500] = 13;
is currently on disk }

80483b7: c7 05 10 9d 04 08 0d movl $0xd,0x8049d10

User code Kernel code

Exception: page fault

movl
Copy page from
disk to memory
Return and
reexecute movl

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Fault Example: Invalid Memory Reference

int a[1000];
main ()
{
a[5000] = 13;
}

80483b7: c7 05 60 e3 04 08 0d movl $0xd,0x804e360

User code Kernel code

Exception: page fault

movl
Detect invalid address
Signal process

 Sends SIGSEGV signal to user process

 User process exits with “segmentation fault”

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Today
 Exceptional Control Flow
 Exceptions
 Processes
 Process Control

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Processes
 Definition: A process is an instance of a running
program.
 One of the most profound ideas in computer science
 Not the same as “program” or “processor”

 Process provides each program with two key

abstractions: Memory
 Logical control flow Stack
Each program seems to have exclusive use of the CPU
 Heap
Data
 Provided by kernel mechanism called context switching
Code
 Private address space
 Each program seems to have exclusive use of main CPU
memory. Registers
 Provided by kernel mechanism called virtual memory

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Multiprocessing: The Illusion

Memory Memory Memory
Stack Stack Stack
Heap Heap Heap
Data Data … Data
Code Code Code

CPU CPU CPU

Registers Registers Registers

 Computer runs many processes simultaneously

 Applications for one or more users
Web browsers, email clients, editors, …

 Background tasks
 Monitoring network & I/O devices

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Multiprocessing Example

 Running program “top” on Mac

 System has 123 processes, 5 of which are active
 Identified by Process ID (PID)
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Multiprocessing: The (Traditional) Reality

Memory
Stack Stack Stack
Heap Heap Heap
Data Data … Data
Code Code Code
Saved Saved Saved
registers registers registers

CPU
Registers

 Single processor executes multiple processes concurrently

 Process executions interleaved (multitasking)
 Address spaces managed by virtual memory system (later in course)
 Register values for nonexecuting processes saved in memory
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Multiprocessing: The (Traditional) Reality

Memory
Stack Stack Stack
Heap Heap Heap
Data Data … Data
Code Code Code
Saved Saved Saved
registers registers registers

CPU
Registers

 Save current registers in memory

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Multiprocessing: The (Traditional) Reality

Memory
Stack Stack Stack
Heap Heap Heap
Data Data … Data
Code Code Code
Saved Saved Saved
registers registers registers

CPU
Registers

 Schedule next process for execution

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Multiprocessing: The (Traditional) Reality

Memory
Stack Stack Stack
Heap Heap Heap
Data Data … Data
Code Code Code
Saved Saved Saved
registers registers registers

CPU
Registers

 Load saved registers and switch address space (context switch)

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Multiprocessing: The (Modern) Reality

Memory
Stack Stack Stack
Heap Heap Heap
Data Data … Data
Code Code Code
Saved Saved Saved
registers registers registers

CPU CPU
 Multicore processors
Registers Registers  Multiple CPUs on single chip
 Share main memory (and some of
the caches)
 Each can execute a separate process
 Scheduling of processors onto
cores done by kernel
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Concurrent Processes
 Each process is a logical control flow.
 Two processes run concurrently (are concurrent) if their
flows overlap in time
 Otherwise, they are sequential
 Examples (running on single core):
 Concurrent: A & B, A & C
 Sequential: B & C

Process A Process B Process C

Time

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User View of Concurrent Processes

 Control flows for concurrent processes are physically
disjoint in time

 However, we can think of concurrent processes as running

in parallel with each other

Process A Process B Process C

Time

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Context Switching
 Processes are managed by a shared chunk of memory-
resident OS code called the kernel
 Important: the kernel is not a separate process, but rather runs as part
of some existing process.
 Control flow passes from one process to another via a
context switch
Process A Process B

user code

kernel code context switch

Time user code

kernel code context switch

user code

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Today
 Exceptional Control Flow
 Exceptions
 Processes
 Process Control

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System Call Error Handling

 On error, Linux system-level functions typically return -1 and
set global variable errno to indicate cause.
 Hard and fast rule:
 You must check the return status of every system-level function
 Only exception is the handful of functions that return void
 Example:

if ((pid = fork()) < 0) {

fprintf(stderr, "fork error: %s\n", strerror(errno));
exit(0);
}

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Error-reporting functions
 Can simplify somewhat using an error-reporting function:
void unix_error(char *msg) /* Unix-style error */
{
fprintf(stderr, "%s: %s\n", msg, strerror(errno));
exit(0);
}

if ((pid = fork()) < 0)

unix_error("fork error");

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Error-handling Wrappers
 We simplify the code we present to you even further by
using Stevens-style error-handling wrappers:
pid_t Fork(void)
{
pid_t pid;

if ((pid = fork()) < 0)

unix_error("Fork error");
return pid;
}

pid = Fork();

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Obtaining Process IDs

 pid_t getpid(void)
 Returns PID of current process

 pid_t getppid(void)
 Returns PID of parent process

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Creating and Terminating Processes

From a programmer’s perspective, we can think of a process
as being in one of three states

 Running
 Process is either executing, or waiting to be executed and will
eventually be scheduled (i.e., chosen to execute) by the kernel

 Stopped
 Process execution is suspended and will not be scheduled until
further notice (next lecture when we study signals)

 Terminated
 Process is stopped permanently

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Terminating Processes
 Process becomes terminated for one of three reasons:
 Receiving a signal whose default action is to terminate (next
lecture)
 Returning from the main routine
 Calling the exit function

 void exit(int status)

 Terminates with an exit status of status
 Convention: normal return status is 0, nonzero on error
 Another way to explicitly set the exit status is to return an integer
value from the main routine

 exit is called once but never returns.

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Creating Processes
 Parent process creates a new running child process by
calling fork

 int fork(void)
 Returns 0 to the child process, child’s PID to parent process
 Child is almost identical to parent:
 Child get an identical (but separate) copy of the parent’s virtual
address space.
 Child gets identical copies of the parent’s open file descriptors
 Child has a different PID than the parent

 fork is interesting (and often confusing) because

it is called once but returns twice

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fork Example
int main()
 Call once, return twice
{
pid_t pid;
 Concurrent execution
int x = 1;  Can’t predict execution
order of parent and child
pid = Fork();
if (pid == 0) { /* Child */  Duplicate but separate
printf("child : x=%d\n", ++x);
exit(0);
address space
}  x has a value of 1 when
fork returns in parent and
/* Parent */
child
printf("parent: x=%d\n", --x);
exit(0);  Subsequent changes to x
} fork.c are independent
 Shared open files
linux> ./fork
parent: x=0  stdout is the same in
child : x=2 both parent and child
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Modeling fork with Process Graphs

 A process graph is a useful tool for capturing the partial
ordering of statements in a concurrent program:
 Each vertex is the execution of a statement
 a -> b means a happens before b
 Edges can be labeled with current value of variables
 printf vertices can be labeled with output
 Each graph begins with a vertex with no inedges
 Any topological sort of the graph corresponds to a feasible
total ordering.
 Total ordering of vertices where all edges point from left to right

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Process Graph Example

int main()
{
pid_t pid;
int x = 1;
child: x=2
pid = Fork(); Child
printf exit
if (pid == 0) { /* Child */
printf("child : x=%d\n", ++x); x==1 parent: x=0
Parent
exit(0); main fork printf exit
}

/* Parent */
printf("parent: x=%d\n", --x);
exit(0);
} fork.c

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Interpreting Process Graphs

 Original graph:
child: x=2
printf exit
x==1 parent: x=0
main fork printf exit

 Relabled graph: Feasible total ordering:

e f

a b e c f d
a b c d

Infeasible total ordering:

a b f c e d
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fork Example: Two consecutive forks

Bye

void fork2() printf

{ L1 Bye
printf("L0\n"); printf fork printf
fork(); Bye
printf("L1\n"); printf
fork();
L1 Bye
printf("Bye\n"); L0
} forks.c printf fork printf fork printf

Feasible output: Infeasible output:

L0 L0
L1 Bye
Bye L1
Bye Bye
L1 L1
Bye Bye
Bye Bye
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fork Example: Nested forks in parent

void fork4()
{
printf("L0\n"); Bye Bye
if (fork() != 0) { print printf
printf("L1\n"); L0 f
L1 L2 Bye
if (fork() != 0) { printf fork printf fork printf printf
printf("L2\n");
}
}
printf("Bye\n");
} Feasible output: Infeasible output:
forks.c
L0 L0
L1 Bye
Bye L1
Bye Bye
L2 Bye
Bye L2

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fork Example: Nested forks in children

void fork5()
{ L2 Bye
printf("L0\n"); printf printf
if (fork() == 0) { L1 Bye
printf("L1\n"); print fork printf
f
if (fork() == 0) { L0 Bye
printf("L2\n"); printf fork printf
}
}
printf("Bye\n"); Feasible output: Infeasible output:
} forks.c L0 L0
Bye Bye
L1 L1
L2 Bye
Bye Bye
Bye L2

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Reaping Child Processes

 Idea
 When process terminates, it still consumes system resources
Examples: Exit status, various OS tables

 Called a “zombie”
 Living corpse, half alive and half dead
 Reaping
 Performed by parent on terminated child (using wait or waitpid)
 Parent is given exit status information
 Kernel then deletes zombie child process
 What if parent doesn’t reap?
 If any parent terminates without reaping a child, then the orphaned
child will be reaped by init process (pid == 1)
 So, only need explicit reaping in long-running processes
 e.g., shells and servers

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Zombie
void fork7() {
if (fork() == 0) {
/* Child */

Example printf("Terminating Child, PID = %d\n", getpid());

exit(0);
} else {
printf("Running Parent, PID = %d\n", getpid());
while (1)
; /* Infinite loop */
linux> ./forks 7 & }
[1] 6639 } forks.c
Running Parent, PID = 6639
Terminating Child, PID = 6640
linux> ps
PID TTY TIME CMD
6585 ttyp9 00:00:00 tcsh
6639 ttyp9 00:00:03 forks
 ps shows child process as
6640 ttyp9 00:00:00 forks <defunct> “defunct” (i.e., a zombie)
6641 ttyp9 00:00:00 ps
linux> kill 6639
[1] Terminated
 Killing parent allows child to be
linux> ps reaped by init
PID TTY TIME CMD
6585 ttyp9 00:00:00 tcsh
6642 ttyp9 00:00:00 ps

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Non-
void fork8()
{
if (fork() == 0) {
terminating /* Child */
printf("Running Child, PID = %d\n",

Child Example getpid());

while (1)
; /* Infinite loop */
} else {
printf("Terminating Parent, PID = %d\n",
getpid());
exit(0);
}
} forks.c
linux> ./forks 8
Terminating Parent, PID = 6675
Running Child, PID = 6676  Child process still active even though
linux> ps parent has terminated
PID TTY TIME CMD
6585 ttyp9 00:00:00 tcsh
6676 ttyp9 00:00:06 forks  Must kill child explicitly, or else will
6677 ttyp9 00:00:00 ps keep running indefinitely
linux> kill 6676
linux> ps
PID TTY TIME CMD
6585 ttyp9 00:00:00 tcsh
6678 ttyp9 00:00:00 ps
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wait: Synchronizing with Children

 Parent reaps a child by calling the wait function

 int wait(int *child_status)

 Suspends current process until one of its children terminates
 Return value is the pid of the child process that terminated
 If child_status != NULL, then the integer it points to will be set
to a value that indicates reason the child terminated and the exit
status:
 Checked using macros defined in wait.h
– WIFEXITED, WEXITSTATUS, WIFSIGNALED,
WTERMSIG, WIFSTOPPED, WSTOPSIG,
WIFCONTINUED
– See textbook for details

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wait: Synchronizing with Children

void fork9() {
int child_status;
HC exit
if (fork() == 0) { printf
printf("HC: hello from child\n");
exit(0);
CT
} else {
HP Bye
printf("HP: hello from parent\n");
wait(&child_status); fork printf wait printf
printf("CT: child has terminated\n");
}
printf("Bye\n");
} forks.c

Feasible output: Infeasible output:

HC HP
HP CT
CT Bye
Bye HC
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Another wait Example

 If multiple children completed, will take in arbitrary order
 Can use macros WIFEXITED and WEXITSTATUS to get information about exit
status

void fork10() {
pid_t pid[N];
int i, child_status;

for (i = 0; i < N; i++)

if ((pid[i] = fork()) == 0) {
exit(100+i); /* Child */
}
for (i = 0; i < N; i++) { /* Parent */
pid_t wpid = wait(&child_status);
if (WIFEXITED(child_status))
printf("Child %d terminated with exit status %d\n",
wpid, WEXITSTATUS(child_status));
else
printf("Child %d terminate abnormally\n", wpid);
}
} forks.c
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waitpid: Waiting for a Specific Process

 pid_t waitpid(pid_t pid, int &status, int options)
 Suspends current process until specific process terminates
 Various options (see textbook)
void fork11() {
pid_t pid[N];
int i;
int child_status;

for (i = 0; i < N; i++)

if ((pid[i] = fork()) == 0)
exit(100+i); /* Child */
for (i = N-1; i >= 0; i--) {
pid_t wpid = waitpid(pid[i], &child_status, 0);
if (WIFEXITED(child_status))
printf("Child %d terminated with exit status %d\n",
wpid, WEXITSTATUS(child_status));
else
printf("Child %d terminate abnormally\n", wpid);
}
} forks.c
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execve: Loading and Running Programs

 int execve(char *filename, char *argv[], char *envp[])
 Loads and runs in the current process:
 Executable file filename
Can be object file or script file beginning with #!interpreter

(e.g., #!/bin/bash)
 …with argument list argv
 By convention argv[0]==filename
 …and environment variable list envp
 “name=value” strings (e.g., USER=droh)
 getenv, putenv, printenv
 Overwrites code, data, and stack
 Retains PID, open files and signal context
 Called once and never returns
 …except if there is an error
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Null-terminated Bottom of stack

Structure of environment variable strings

Null-terminated
the stack when command-line arg strings

a new program envp[n] == NULL

starts envp[n-1]
...
environ
(global var)
envp[0]
envp
argv[argc] = NULL
(in
argv[argc-1] %rdx)
...
argv argv[0]
(in %rsi)

argc Stack frame for

(in %rdi) libc_start_main
Top of stack
Future stack frame for
main

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execve Example
 Executes “/bin/ls –lt /usr/include” in child process
using current environment:
myargv[argc] = NULL
(argc == 3) myargv[2] “/usr/include”
myargv[1] “-lt”
myargv myargv[0] “/bin/ls”
envp[n] = NULL
envp[n-1] “PWD=/usr/droh”
…
envp[0] “USER=droh”
environ

if ((pid = Fork()) == 0) { /* Child runs program */

if (execve(myargv[0], myargv, environ) < 0) {
printf("%s: Command not found.\n", myargv[0]);
exit(1);
}
}
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 51
 Carnegie Mellon

Summary
 Exceptions
 Events that require nonstandard control flow
 Generated externally (interrupts) or internally (traps and faults)

 Processes
 At any given time, system has multiple active processes
 Only one can execute at a time on a single core, though
 Each process appears to have total control of
processor + private memory space

Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 52

 Carnegie Mellon

Summary (cont.)
 Spawning processes
 Call fork
 One call, two returns
 Process completion
 Call exit
 One call, no return
 Reaping and waiting for processes
 Call wait or waitpid
 Loading and running programs
 Call execve (or variant)
 One call, (normally) no return

Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 53