College of Computing and Informatics

IT351
Computer Networks

Chapter 2

McGraw-Hill © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000

 Chapter 2: Network Models

Outline
2.1 Protocol Layering
2.2 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
2.3 OSI Model
 2-1 PROTOCOL LAYERING

• *A word we hear all the time when we talk about the

Internet is protocol.
• A protocol defines the rules that both the sender
and receiver and all intermediate devices need to
follow to be able to communicate effectively.
• When communication is simple, we may need
only one simple protocol.
• When the communication is complex, we need
a protocol at each layer, or protocol layering.

2.3
 2.1.1 Scenarios

• Let us develop two simple scenarios to better

understand the need for protocol layering.

• In the first scenario, communication is so

simple that it can occur in only one layer.

• In the second scenario, the communication

between Maria and Ann takes place in three
layers.

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 Figure 2.1: A single-layer protocol
• Assume Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of common ideas.
• Communication between Maria and Ann takes place in one layer, face
to face, in the same language.
• Set of rules needs to be followed.
1. Maria and Ann should greet each other when they meet.
2. They should restrict their vocabulary to the level of their friendship.
3. They should refrain from speaking when the other party is speaking.
They should know that both should have the opportunity to talk about
the issue.
4. They should exchange some nice words when they leave.

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 Figure 2.2: A three-layer protocol
• In the second scenario, we assume that Ann is offered a higher-level position
in her company, but needs to move to another branch located in a city very far
from Maria.
• They do not want their ideas to be revealed by other people if the letters are
intercepted.
• We assume that Ann and Maria each have three machines (or robots) that can
perform the task at each layer.
• Protocol layering enables us to divide a complex task into several smaller
and simpler tasks.

Postal carrier facility

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 2.1.2 Principles of Protocol Layering
Let us discuss two principles of protocol layering.
1. The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional
communication, we need to make each layer so that it is able to
perform two opposite tasks, one in each direction.
2. The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is
that the two objects under each layer at both sites should be
identical.

Postal carrier facility

2.7
 2.1.3 Logical Connections
• *After following the above two principles, we can think about logical
connection between each layer as shown in Figure 2.3.
• Logical connection means that we have layer-to-layer
communication. *Maria and Ann can think that there is a logical
(imaginary) connection at each layer through which they can send the
object created from that layer.
• *We will see that the concept of logical connection will help us better
understand the task of layering we encounter in data communication
and networking.

Figure 2.3: Logical connection between peer layers

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 2-2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
• TCP/IP is a protocol suite (a set of protocols organized in different
layers) used on the Internet today.
• TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

Figure 2.4: Layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite

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 2.2.1 Layered Architecture
• To show how the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are
involved in communication between two hosts:
• We assume that we want to use the suite in a small
Internet made up of three LANs (links), each with a
link-layer switch.
• We also assume that the links are connected by one
router, as shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5: Communication through an Internet

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 Figure 2.5: Communication through an Internet

2.11
 2.2.2 Layers in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite

• *After the above introduction, we briefly discuss the

functions and duties of layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• *Each layer is discussed in detail in the next five parts of
the book.
• To better understand the duties of each layer, we need to
think about the logical connections between layers.
• Figure 2.6 shows logical connections in our simple
Internet.

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 Figure 2.6: Logical connections between layers in TCP/IP

• As the figure shows, the duty of the application, transport,

and network layers is end-to-end.
• The duty of the data-link and physical layers is hop-to-hop

Logical connections

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 Figure 2.7: Identical objects in the TCP/IP protocol suite
• Figure 2.7 shows the second principle discussed previously for
protocol layering.
• We show the identical objects below each layer related to each device.

Identical objects (messages)

Identical objects (segment or user datagram)

Identical objects (datagram) Identical objects (datagram)

Identical objects (frame) Identical objects (frame)

Identical objects (bits) Identical objects (bits)

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 2.2.3 Description of Each Layer

• After understanding the concept of logical communication, we are

ready to briefly discuss the duty of each layer.
• Our discussion in this chapter will be very brief, but we come back
to the duty of each layer in next five parts of the book.
• Summary of duties

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 2.2.4 Encapsulation and Decapsulation
• One of the important concepts in protocol layering in the Internet is
encapsulation/ decapsulation.
• When the data is moving from upper layer to the lower layer according
to a network model, each layer includes a bundle of information called a
header along with the actual data.
• This packing of data in each layer is known as the encapsulation.
• This unpacking of data in each layer is known as the decapsulation.
• Figure 2.8 shows this concept for the small Internet in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.8 Encapsulation/Decapsulation

2.16
 2.2.5 Addressing
• It is worth mentioning another concept related to protocol layering in the
Internet, addressing.
• *As we discussed before, we have logical communication between pairs of
layers in this model.
• Any communication that involves two parties needs two addresses: source
address and destination address.
• *Although it looks as if we need five pairs of addresses, one pair per layer, we
normally have only four because the physical layer does not need addresses;
the unit of data exchange at the physical layer is a bit, which definitely cannot
have an address.

Figure 2.9: Addressing in

the TCP/IP protocol suite

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 2.2.6 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing (1/2)
• Since the TCP/IP protocol suite uses several protocols at
some layers, we can say that we have multiplexing at the
source and demultiplexing at the destination.
• Figure 2.10 shows the concept of multiplexing and
demultiplexing at the three upper layers.

Figure 2.10: Multiplexing and demultiplexing

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 2.2.6 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing (2/2)
• Multiplexing in this case means that a protocol at a layer
can encapsulate a packet from several next-higher layer
protocols (one at a time).
• Demultiplexing means that a protocol can decapsulate and
deliver a packet to several next-higher layer protocols (one
at a time).

Figure 2.10: Multiplexing and demultiplexing

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 2-3 OSI MODEL
• Although, when speaking of the Internet, everyone talks about the TCP/IP
protocol suite, this suite is not the only suite of protocols defined.
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is not a protocol; it is a layered
framework for the design of network systems that allows communication
between all types of computer systems.
• OSI model consists of seven layers, each of which defines a part of the
process of moving information across a network (see Figure 2.11).

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Figure 2.11: The OSI model
 2-3 OSI MODEL
1. Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or
wireless connection between network nodes.
It defines the connector, the electrical cable or wireless
technology connecting the devices, and is responsible for
transmission of the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s and
1s, while taking care of bit rate control.

Figure 2.11: The OSI model

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 2-3 OSI MODEL
2. Data Link Layer
The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between
two physically-connected nodes on a network.
This layer is composed of two parts—Logical Link Control (LLC),
which identifies network protocols, performs error checking and
synchronizes frames, and Media Access Control (MAC) which uses
MAC addresses to connect devices and define permissions to
transmit and receive data.

Figure 2.11: The OSI model

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 2-3 OSI MODEL

3. Network Layer
The network layer has the main function to route packets by
discovering the best path across a physical network.
The network layer uses network addresses (typically Internet
Protocol addresses) to route packets to a destination node.

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Figure 2.11: The OSI model
 2-3 OSI MODEL

4. Transport Layer
The transport layer carries out flow control, sending data at a
rate that matches the connection speed of the receiving device,
and error control, checking if data was received incorrectly and
if not, requesting it again.

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Figure 2.11: The OSI model
 2-3 OSI MODEL

5. Session Layer
The session layer creates communication channels, called
sessions, between devices.
It is responsible for opening sessions, ensuring they remain
open and functional while data is being transferred, and closing
them when communication ends.

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Figure 2.11: The OSI model
 2-3 OSI MODEL

6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer.
It defines how two devices should encode, encrypt, and
compress data so it is received correctly on the other end.
The presentation layer takes any data transmitted by the
application layer and prepares it for transmission over the
session layer.

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Figure 2.11: The OSI model
 2-3 OSI MODEL

7. Application Layer
The application layer is used by end-user software such as web
browsers and email clients. It provides protocols that allow software to
send and receive information and present meaningful data to users. A
few examples of application layer protocols are the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP),
Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),
and Domain Name System (DNS).

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Figure 2.11: The OSI model
 2.3.1 OSI versus TCP/IP
• When we compare the two models, we find that two layers, session and
presentation, are missing from the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• These two layers were not added to the TCP/IP protocol suite after the
publication of the OSI model.
• The application layer in the suite is usually considered to be the
combination of three layers in the OSI model, as shown in Figure 2.12.

Figure 2.12: TCP/IP and OSI model

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 2.3.2 Lack of OSI Model’s Success

• The OSI model appeared after the TCP/IP protocol suite.

• Most experts were at first excited and thought that the TCP/IP protocol
would be fully replaced by the OSI model.
• This did not happen for several reasons, but we describe only three,
which are agreed upon by all experts in the field:
1. OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place and a lot of time and
money had been spent on the suite; changing it would cost a lot.
2. Some layers in the OSI model were never fully defined (session and
presentation layers)
3. OSI implementation issues.

2.29
Thank You