Chapter-5

TCP/IP Suite
IP Addresses
INTRODUCTION
 IP Address
• An IP address is an address used in order to uniquely
identify a device on an IP network.
• IP Addresses are used to route packets from a
sending node to a receiving node.
• The address is made up of 32 binary bits.
• Divided into a network portion and host portion
with the help of a subnet mask.
• The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
assigns network identifiers to avoid duplications.
 IP Address
• The 32 binary bits are broken into four octets
(1 octet = 8 bits).

• Each octet is converted to decimal and separated by

a period (dot).

• For this reason, an IP address is said to be expressed

in dotted decimal format (for example,
172.16.81.100).

• The value in each octet ranges from 0 to 255 decimal,

or 00000000 − 11111111 binary.
 Dotted Decimal Notation
• IP addresses are written in a so-called dotted decimal
notation
• Each byte is identified by a decimal number in the range
[0..255]:
• Example:

10000000 10001111 10001001 10010000

1st Byte 2nd Byte 3rd Byte 4th Byte
= 128 = 143 = 137 = 144

128.143.137.144
 Network prefix and Host number
• The network prefix identifies a network and the host
number identifies a specific host (actually, interface on
the network).

network prefix host number

• How do we know how long the network
prefix is?
• The network prefix used to be implicitly defined
(class-based addressing, A,B,C,D…)
• The network prefix now is flexible and is indicated
by a prefix/netmask (classless).
What is an IP Address?

An IP address is a
32-bit
address.

The IP addresses
are
unique.
Address space rule
…………..
addr1 …………..
The address spaceaddr15in a protocol
addr2 …………..
uses N-bits to …………..
that………….. define an
Address is: addr41 addr226
addr31
………….. 2N…………..
IPv4 address space

The address space of IPv4 is

232
or
4,294,967,296.
 Binary Notation

01110101 10010101 00011101 11101010

Dotted-decimal notation
 Hexadecimal Notation

0111 0101 1001 0101 0001 1101 1110 1010

75 95 1D EA

0x75951DEA
 Example 1

Change the following IP address from binary

notation to dotted-decimal notation.
10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111

Solution

129.11.11.239
 Example 2

Change the following IP address from

dotted-decimal notation to binary notation:
111.56.45.78

Solution

01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110

Example 3

Find the error in the following IP Address

111.56.045.78

Solution

There are no leading zeroes in

Dotted-decimal notation (045)
Example 3 (continued)

Find the error in the following IP Address

75.45.301.14

Solution

In decimal notation each number <= 255

301 is out of the range
 CLASSFUL
ADDRESSING
Occupation of the address space
In classful addressing the address space is
divided into 5 classes:

A, B, C, D, and E.
IP Address Classes
• The IP is divided into different classes.

• Rules for class design

ALL BITS ZERO NOT ALLOWED
ALL BITS ONE NOT ALLOWED
Finding the class in binary notation
Finding the address class
 IP Address Classes
 The IP is divided into different class with respect to
their 1st octet.

 Class A: 0XXX XXXX –

Min = 0000 0001 = 1
Max = 0111 1110 = 126
 127 is not allowed as it is loop back address used by
LAN card for its own working process.
 Class A addresses are assigned to networks with a
very large number of hosts.
Class A Addresses
• The high-order bit in a class A address
is always set to zero.
• The next seven bits complete the
network ID.
• The remaining 24 bits represent the
host ID.
• This allows for 126 networks and
16,777,214 hosts per network.
Class A Addresses

0 Network Host
1 7 24

In this 7bits are used for network field and 24 bits

for host field.
Class A IP address range includes
1.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
Millions of class A addresses
are wasted.
 Class B Address
• Class B addresses are assigned to medium-sized to
large-sized networks.

• The two high-order bits in a class B address are always

set to binary 1 0.

• The next 14 bits complete the network ID.

• The remaining 16 bits represent the host ID.

• This allows for 16,384 networks and 65,534 hosts per

network.
 Class B Address
• In this 14 bits are used for network field and 16 bits
for host field.
• Class B IP address range includes 128.0.0.0 to
191.255.255.255

10 Network Host
2 14 16
Many class B addresses
are wasted.
 Class C Address
• Class C addresses are used for small networks.
• The three high-order bits in a class C address
are always set to binary 1 1 0.
• The next 21 bits complete the network ID.
• The remaining 8 bits (last octet) represent the
host ID.
• This allows for 20,97,152 networks and 254
hosts per network.
 Class C Address

110 Network Host

3 21 8

In this 21 bits are used for network field and

8 bits for host field.
•Class C IP address range includes
192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
 The number of addresses in
a class C block
is smaller than
the needs of most organizations.
 Class D Address
• Class D addresses are reserved for IP
multicast addresses.
• The four high-order bits in a class D address are
always set to binary 1 1 1 0.
• The remaining bits recognize hosts.
• Class D IP address range includes 224.0.0.0 to
239.255.255.255

1110 Multicast Address

4 32
 Class D addresses
are used for multicasting;
there is only
one block in this class.
 Class E Address
• Class E is an experimental address that is
reserved for future use.
• The high-order bits in a class E address are set
to 1111.

1111 Reserved for Future Use

4 32

• Class E IP address range includes 240.0.0.0 to

255.255.255.255
Class E addresses are reserved
for special purposes;
most of the block is wasted.
 Example 6

Find the class of the following IP addresses

00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
11000001 00001011 00001011 11101111

Solution

•00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111

1st is 0, hence it is Class A
•11000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
1st and 2nd bits are 1, and 3rd bit is 0 hence, Class C
Figure 4-5

Finding the class in decimal notation

Example 7

Find the class of the following addresses

158.223.1.108
227.13.14.88

Solution
•158.223.1.108
1st byte = 158 (128<158<191) class B
•227.13.14.88
1st byte = 227 (224<227<239) class D
Example 8

Given the network address 132.21.0.0, find the

class, the block, and the range of the addresses

Solution

The 1st byte is between 128 and 191.

Hence, Class B
The block has a netid of 132.21.
The addresses range from
132.21.0.0 to 132.21.255.255.
 Network Masks
• A network mask helps to know which portion of
the address identifies – the network and which
portion of the address identifies the node.
• A mask is a 32-bit binary number.
• Class A, B, and C networks have default masks,
also known as natural masks.

Class A default mask is 255.0.0.0

Class B default mask is 255.255.0.0
Class C default mask is 255.255.255.0
 Example
• How the mask identify the network and node address.
Consider IP: 8.20.15.1 Default mask:255.0.0.0
1. Convert the address and mask to binary numbers.
8.20.15.1 = 00001000.00010100.00001111.00000001
255.0.0.0=11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
_________________________________________________________________
And = 00001000.00000000.00000000.00000000
netid = 00001000 = 8
hostid = 00010100.00001111.00000001 = 20.15.1
SUBNETTING
 Subnetting
• To create multiple logical networks that exist
within a single Class A, B, or C network.
• If you do not subnet, you are only able to use
one network from your Class A, B, or C
network, which is unrealistic.
• The subnet mask is 32 bit value that usually
expressed in dotted decimal notation.
 Subnet mask
• The subnet mask follows two rules:

• If a binary bit is set to a 1 (or on) in a subnet mask,

the corresponding bit in the address identifies the
network.

• If a binary bit is set to a 0 (or off) in a subnet mask,

the corresponding bit in the address identifies the
host.
 Example
• Looking at the address and subnet mask in binary:
• IP Address:
10011110.01010000.10100100.00000011
• Subnet Mask:
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000

• The first 16 bits of the subnet mask are set to 1. Thus,

the first 16 bits of the address (158.80) identify the
network.
• The last 16 bits of the subnet mask are set to 0. Thus,
identify the unique host on that network.
 Note
• The network portion of the subnet mask
must be contiguous.
• For example, a subnet mask of
255.0.0.255 is not valid.
• Subnetting is done by borrowing bits
from the host part and add them the
network part
 Finding the Subnet Address

Given an IP address, we can find the

subnet address the same way we found the
network address.
We apply the mask to the address.
We can do this in two ways: straight or
short-cut.
Straight Method
In the straight method, we use binary notation
for both the address and the mask and then
apply the AND operation to find the subnet
address.
 Example 9

What is the subnetwork address if the

destination address is 200.45.34.56 and the
subnet mask is 255.255.240.0?
 Solution

11001000 00101101 00100010 00111000

11111111 11111111 11110000 00000000
11001000 00101101 00100000 00000000

The subnetwork address is 200.45.32.0.

Short-Cut Method
•If the byte in the mask is 255, copy the byte
in the address.
•If the byte in the mask is 0, replace the byte
in the address with 0.
•If the byte in the mask is neither 255 nor 0,
we write the mask and the address in binary
and apply the AND operation.
 Example 10

What is the subnetwork address if the

destination address is 19.30.80.5 and the
mask is 255.255.192.0?

Solution
Figure 5-6

Solution
The number of subnets must be
a power of 2.
 Example 11

A company is granted the site address

201.70.64.0 (class C). The company needs
six subnets. Design the subnets.

Solution

The number of 1s in the default mask is 24

(class C).
 Solution (Continued)

• The company needs six subnets.

• This number 6 is not a power of 2. The next
number that is a power of 2 is 8 (23).
• We need 3 more 1s in the subnet mask.
• The total number of 1s in the subnet mask is
27 (24 + 3).
• The total number of 0s is 5 (32 - 27).
 Solution (Continued)

The mask is
11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000
or
255.255.255.224
The number of subnets is 8.
The number of addresses in each subnet is 25 (5 is the
number of 0s) or 32
Subnet 1:
The bit combination is 001.
Taking last octet in binary :0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 = 32 (10)

Hence the subnet address is, 201.70.64. 32

Subnet 2:
The bit combination is 01 0.
Taking last octet in binary :0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 = 64 (10)

Hence the subnet address is, 201.70.64. 64

Subnet 3:
The bit combination is 011.
Taking last octet in binary :0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 = 96 (10)

Hence the subnet address is, 201.70.64. 96

Subnet 4:
The bit combination is 100.
Taking last octet in binary :1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 128 (10)

Hence the subnet address is, 201.70.64. 128

Subnet 5:
The bit combination is 101.
Taking last octet in binary :1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 = 160 (10)

Hence the subnet address is, 201.70.64. 160

Subnet 6:
The bit combination is 110.
Taking last octet in binary :1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 192 (10)

Hence the subnet address is, 201.70.64. 192

Figure 5-8

Example 3
 Example 12

A company is granted the site address

181.56.0.0 (class B). The company needs
1000 subnets. Design the subnets.
Solution

The number of 1s in the default mask is 16

(class B).
 Solution (Continued)

• The company needs 1000 subnets.

• This number is not a power of 2.
• The next number that is a power of 2 is
1024 (210).
• We need 10 more 1s in the subnet mask.
• The total number of 1s in the subnet
mask is 26 (16 + 10).
• The total number of 0s is 6 (32 - 26).
 Solution (Continued)

The mask is

11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000

or
255.255.255.192.
The number of subnets is 1024.
The number of addresses in each subnet is 26
(6 is the number of 0s) or 64.
Figure 5-9

Example 4
Variable-length subnetting
SUPERNETTING
 What is suppernetting?
• Supernetting is the opposite of subnetting.
• In subnetting you borrow bits from the host
part.
• Supernetting is done by borrowing bits from the
network side.
• And combine a group of networks into one
large supernetwork.
 Supernetting
• This enables organizations to modify their network
size and minimize the requirement of network
routing devices.
• Helps routers to store routing information
effectively.
A supernetwork
Rules:
 The number of blocks must be a power of 2 (1,
2, 4, 8, 16, . . .).
 The blocks must be contiguous in the address
space (no gaps between the blocks).
 The third byte of the first address in the
superblock must be evenly divisible by the
number of blocks. In other words, if the number
of blocks is N, the third byte must be divisible by
N.
 Example 5

A company needs 600 addresses. Which of

the following set of class C blocks can be
used to form a supernet for this company?
•198.47.32.0 198.47.33.0 198.47.34.0
•198.47.32.0198.47.42.0 198.47.52.0 198.47.62.0
•198.47.31.0198.47.32.0 198.47.33.0 198.47.52.0
•198.47.32.0 198.47.33.0 198.47.34.0 198.47.35.0
 Solution

1: No, there are only three blocks.

2: No, the blocks are not contiguous.
3: No, 31 in the first block is not divisible by 4.
4: Yes, all three requirements are fulfilled.
Comparison of subnet, default,
and supernet masks
 Example 13

We need to make a supernetwork out of 16

class C blocks. What is the supernet mask?
Solution
We need 16 blocks. For 16 blocks we need to change four 1s to 0s in
the default mask. So the mask is
11111111 11111111 11110000 00000000
or

255.255.240.0
 Example 14

A supernet has a first address of 205.16.32.0 and a

supernet mask of 255.255.248.0. A router receives three
packets with the following destination addresses:
205.16.37.44
205.16.42.56
205.17.33.76
Which packet belongs to the supernet?
 Solution

We apply the supernet mask to see if we can find

the beginning address.
205.16.37.44 AND 255.255.248.0205.16.32.0
205.16.42.56 AND 255.255.248.0 205.16.40.0
205.17.33.76 AND 255.255.248.0 205.17.32.0
Only the first address belongs to this supernet.