General principles of cell

communication
 Cell communication
• Cells have some ability to sense and respond to specific
chemical signals.

• Individual cells, tissues and organs together communicate

with each other within a complex structure to maintain
homeostasis.

• Every single cell contributes in the integrated life process.

Cell signaling may be of two types,

• 1. Intercellular signaling – communication between the cells
• 2. Intracellular signaling – involves various signaling chains
and occurs within the cell.
 Signal transduction pathway
• A signaling molecule known as ligand or a primary
messenger is produced by a signaling cell. These ligands
bind to a receptor which in turn associated with a target cell.
• Binding to the ligand to the receptor brings about a
conformational change in the receptor and activates it.
• As a result of activation of receptor a response is seen in the
target cell.
• This response either direct or indirect and occurs by the
production of secondary messengers, e.g., cAMP, DAG and
IP3.
• Response of the target cell include changes in cellular
metabolism and gene transcription.
Steps involved in signal transduction
Signaling molecule

Receptor of target cell

Intracellular molecule

Biological effect
 Intracellular signaling pathway activation
by extracellular signal molecule
• Various physiological function in multicellular organism are
basically by the mechanism of intercellular signaling or
intercellular communication.
• Intercellular signaling primarily uses external signals in the form
of messengers (sensory signals or hormones)
• These signals are produced by signal producing cells and are
recognised by the target cells (receptors)
• The external signals are then change into an intracellular signaling
chain.
• Several biochemical activities of a cell like metabolism,
cell division, cell morphology and cell transcription are
controlled by these intracellular signaling chains.

• Processing of a signal within the cell involves several

steps which are generally defined as intracellular
signaling pathway
 The Three Stages of Cell Signaling
• Earl W. Sutherland discovered how the hormone
epinephrine acts on cells
• Sutherland suggested that cells receiving signals
went through three processes:
– Reception

– Transduction

– Response
EXTRACELLULAR CYTOPLASM
FLUID
Plasma membrane

Reception Transduction Response

Receptor

Activatio
n of
cellular
response

Relay molecules in a signal transduction

Signal
pathway
molecule
 Reception of external signals
• External signals are transduced into intracellular
signaling paths by 2 ways,

• In the first way, the transmembrane receptors receive

the signal at the cell membrane and signal transduction
takesplace.

• In the second way, the receptors are localised in the

cytosol and the messenger binds to these receptors by
crossing the cell membrane.

• Most signal receptors are plasma membrane proteins.

 Intracellular receptors
• Many cell signals are lipid soluble that can pass through
plasma membrane of the target cell.

• Some receptor proteins are intracellular found in the

cytosol or nucleus of target cells.
• Small or hydrophobic chemical messengers can
readily cross the membrane and activate receptors.
• Examples: Steroid and thyroid hormones.

• An activated hormone-receptor complex can act as a

transcription factor, turning on specific genes
 1. Receptors that act as gene regulators
• Some of the intracellular receptors act as regulators of
gene transcription. Eg receptors for steroid hormones
such as cortisol, estrogen and progesterone.
• All of these receptors have a DNA binding site.
• The receptor binds to a specific nuclotide sequence on
the DNA, which activates a particular gene.
2. Receptors act as enzymes
• Nitric oxide diffuses out of the cells where it is produced
and passes directly into neighbouring cells, where it
binds guanylyl cyclase enzyme
 CELL SURFACE RECEPTORS
• Most of the signal molecules are water soluble such as
peptide hormones, neurotransmitters and proteins that
act as growth factors during development.
• Water soluble signal molecules cannot diffuse through
the cell membrane.
• So these molecules are bind to receptor proteins on the
surface of cell.
• These are 3 types
1.Chemically gated ion channel
2.Enzymatic receptors
3. G-Protein coupled receptors
 1.Chemically gated ion channel
• These are protein receptors through which ion passes.
• The channel is known as chemically gated because it opens
when a neurotransmitter binds with it.
• When a chemically gated ion channel gets opens different
types of ion such as Na+, K+, Ca+, Cl- flows across the
membrane depending on the structure of cell.
2.Enzymatic receptors
• These receptors act as enzymes or directly linked to enzymes.
• Signal molecule bind to these receptors it activates the
enzyme.
• The enzymes that get activates called as protein kinases.
2.Enzymatic receptors
 3. G-Protein coupled receptors
• G-Protein linked receptors acts indirectly on enzymes or ion
channels in the plasma membrane with the help of protein called as
guanosine triphosphate (GTP) binding protein or G-protein
• G-proteins are used to transmit signal from the membrane surface
into inside of cell.
• G-proteins are the mediators that initiate a diffusible signal in the
cytoplasm.
• Once the signal molecules binds to the receptor the shape of G-
protein linked receptor get changes.
• This change in receptor shape twists the G protein causing it bind
with GTP.
• The G-Protein can now diffuse away from the receptor.
• The activated complex of a G-protein with attached GTP is then
free to initiate a number of events.
G-Protein coupled receptors
 Forms of intracellular signaling
• Cell signaling can be classified based on following type
of signal.
• 1.Mechanical signal – forces exerted on the cell
• 2.Biochemical signal – proteins, lipids, ions and gases

• Contact dependant signaling

• Paracrine signaling
• Synaptic signaling
• Endocrine signaling
 Contact dependant
• Also called as Juxtacrine signals or target adjacent
(touching) cells.
• These signals are transmitted along cell membranes via
protein or lipid components integral to the membrane and
are capable of affecting either the emitting cell.
• Eg., calcium ions, proteins, DNA.
 Paracrine signaling
• Signals that act locally between cells that are close
together are called as paracrine.
• Paracrine signals move by diffusion through the
extracellular matrix.
• These type of signals usually elicit quick responses and
last for short duration.
• It plays an important role in early development co-
ordinating the activitiees of neighbouring cells.
• Eg., D cells of the stomach produce the somatostatin, it
diffuses to the gastric acid cells.
 Synaptic signaling
• Signaling pathway between neurons and target cells is
known as synaptic signaling.

• The signal molecules neurotransmitters do not travel

to the distant cells through the circulatory system like
hormones.

• The narrow gap between the two cells is called as

chemical synapse.
Synaptic signaling
 Endocrine signaling
• In endocrine signaling hormones are produce by an
endocrine gland and sent through the blood stream to
distant cells.
• Hormones can be small lipophilic molecules that diffuse
through the cell membrane to reach cytosolic or nuclear
receptors.
• Examples are progesterone and testosterone, as well as
thyroid hormones.
• The release of cortisol from the adrenal gland
stimulated by the ACTH, from the anterior pitutary
gland into the blood via endocrine signaling.
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