LECTURE PRESENTATIONS

For BIOLOGY, TWELFTH EDITION

Sylvia S. Mader, Michael Windelspecht
Michael Windelspecht

Chapter 10

Meiosis and Sexual

Reproduction

Lectures by Dr. Sabika Allehdan, PhD

Erin Barley
 Outline
10.1 Overview of Meiosis
10.2 Genetic Variation
10.3 The Phases of Meiosis
10.4 Meiosis Compared to Mitosis
10.5 The Cycle of Life
10.6 Changes in Chromosome Number
and Structure

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 The Importance of Meiosis
• Meiosis
 It introduces an enormous amount of diversity
 There are more than 70 trillion different genetic
combinations possible from the mating of two
individuals
 Males and females differ in the way they form
gametes
 In males, sperm production begins at puberty, but in
the female, the process of producing eggs starts
before birth and ends at menopause

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 Overview of Meiosis
• Meiosis
 Special type of cell division
 Used only for sexual reproduction
 Chromosomes are replicated in S phase of interphase and then
halved prior to fertilization
• Parents are diploid (2n)
• Meiosis produces haploid (n) gametes
– Haploid cells contain a single set of chromosomes.
– If there were no reduction of chromosomes in meiosis the number of chromosomes
would double each generation
• Gametes fuse in fertilization to form a diploid (2n) zygote
– The zygote becomes the next diploid (2n) generation
– If events in meiosis go wrong, gametes contain the wrong number of chromosomes

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 Homologous Pairs of Chromosomes
• In diploid body cells, chromosomes occur in pairs
• Humans have 23 different types of chromosomes
• Diploid (2n) cells have two chromosomes of each type
• Chromosomes of the same type are said to be homologous
chromosomes (homologues)
 They have the same length
 Their centromeres are positioned in the same place
 One came from the father (the paternal homologue); the
other from the mother (the maternal homologue)
 When stained, they show similar banding patterns, because
they contain genes for the same traits in the homologous
pair

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 Homologous Chromosomes

In diploid body cells, the chromosomes occur in pairs called homologues chromosomes. a.
In this micrograph of stained chromosomes from a human cell, the pairs have been
numbered 1-22 and XX. Note that chromosome pairs 1-22 are autosomes , coding for non-
sex traits , whereas the XX pair includes the sex chromosomes and helps determine human
gender. b. these chromosomes are duplicated, and each chromosome in the homologous pair
is composed of two chromatids. The sister chromatids contain exactly the same genes; the
non-sister chromatids contain genes for the same traits (e.g., type of hair, color of eyes), but
one may have DNA that codes for trait variation, such as dark hair versus light hair.

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 Homologous Chromosomes
• Homologous chromosomes have genes controlling the same trait
at the same position
 Gene occurs in duplicate
 A maternal copy from the mother
 A paternal copy from the father
• Many genes exist in several variant forms in a large population
• Homologous copies of a gene may encode identical or different
genetic information
• The variants that exist for a gene are called alleles.
• An individual may have:
 Identical alleles for a specific gene on both homologues (homozygous for
the trait), or
 A maternal allele that differs from the corresponding paternal allele
(heterozygous for the trait).
 Example: a gene coding for short fingers on one homologue and a gene
coding for long fingers at the same location on the other

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Introduction to Meiosis
 Meiosis Is Reduction Division
 Meiosis involves two nuclear divisions
 Meiosis I:
• Chromosomes are replicated prior to meiosis I
– Each chromosome consists of two identical sister
chromatids
• Homologous chromosomes pair up in synapsis
– Chromosomes may recombine or exchange genetic material
• Homologous pairs align themselves against each other,
side by side at the metaphase plate
• The two members of a homologous pair separate
• Each daughter cell receives one duplicated chromosome
from each pair
– Chromosome number is reduced from 2n to n
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 Meiosis Is Reduction Division
 Meiosis II:
• DNA is not replicated between meiosis I and meiosis II

• Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles

• The four daughter cells contain one daughter chromosome

from each pair.

• Each daughter chromosome consists of a single chromatid

• The daughter cells are haploid

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 Overview of Meiosis

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 Overview of Meiosis

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 Overview of Meiosis

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 Overview of Meiosis

Following DNA replication, each chromosome is duplicated and consists of two chromatids.
During meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair and separate. During meiosis II, the sister
chromatids of each duplicated chromosome separate. At the completion of meiosis , there
are four haploid daughter cells. Each daughter cell has one of each kind of chromosome.

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 Overview of Meiosis

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 Fate of Daughter Cells
– In plants, daughter cells become haploid spores that germinate to
become haploid generation

– This generation then produces gametes by mitosis

– In animals, daughter cells become gametes i.e sperms and eggs

– The body cells of an animal normally contain the diploid number of

chromosomes due to the fusion of sperm and egg during
fertilization

– If meiotic events go wrong, the gametes can contain the wrong

number of chromosomes or altered chromosomes results in
abnormality
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 Genetic Variation
• Meiosis helps ensure genetic recombination

• In a changing environment, asexual reproduction might be

disadvantageous

– Asexually reproducing organisms depend on mutations to generate

variation in offspring

• Genetic variation is essential for a species to evolve and

adapt in a changing environment

– Sexual reproduction favors adaptation to changing environments

• Meiosis brings about genetic variation in two keyways:

– Crossing over between homologous chromosomes, and
– Independent assortment of homologous chromosomes
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 Crossing Over
• It involves exchange of genetic material between non-sister
chromatids during meiosis I

• At synapsis, a nucleoprotein lattice (called the synaptonemal

complex) appears between homologues
 Holds homologues together
 Aligns DNA of non-sister chromatids
 Allows crossing over (exchange of genetic material) to occur
• As the lattice of the synaptonemal complex breaks down,
homologues are held together by chiasmata
• Then, homologues separate and are distributed to different daughter
cells
• Crossing over produces new combinations of genes-genetic
recombination
• Essential for the normal segregation of chromosomes during meiosis

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 Crossing Over Occurs During Meiosis I

a. The homologous chromosomes pair up, and a nucleoprotein lattice develops between
them. This is an electron micrograph of the lattice. It zippers the members of the bivalent
together, so that corresponding genes on paired chromosomes are in alignment. b. This
visual representation shows only two places where non-sister chromatids 1 and 3 have
come in contact. c. Chiasmata indicate where crossing-over has occurred. The exchange of
color represents the exchange of genetic material. d. Following meiosis II, daughter
chromosomes have a new combination of genetic material due to crossing-over, which
occurred between non-sister chromatids during meiosis I.
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 Independent Assortment of Homologous Chromosomes
• When homologous chromosome pairs align at the metaphase
plate:

 They separate in a random manner

 The maternal or paternal homologue may be oriented toward
either pole of mother cell
• It causes random mixing of blocks of alleles into gametes

• The possible chromosome orientations for a cell with three pairs

of homologous chromosomes is 23 or 8 combinations of
maternal and paternal chromosomes

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 Independent Assortment

When a parent cell has three pairs of homologues chromosome, there are 2 3 or 8
possible chromosome alignments at the metaphase plate due to independent assortment.
Each possible combination is shown, one in each cell.

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 Significance of Genetic Variation
• In humans with 23 pairs of chromosomes, the combinations
possible are 223 or 8,388,608

•Fertilization: union of male and female gametes

• When gametes fuse at fertilization:
 Chromosomes donated by the parents are combined
 In humans, (223)2=70,368,744,000,000 chromosomally
different zygotes are possible

• If crossing over occurs only once

 (423)2 or, 4,951,760,200,000,000,000,000,000,000
 Crossing over may occur several times in each
chromosome

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 Significance of Genetic Variation

 Asexual reproduction produces genetically identical clones

 Sexual reproduction causes genetic recombination among
members of a population
 Asexual reproduction is advantageous when the environment is
stable
 However, if the environment changes, genetic variability
introduced by sexual reproduction may be advantageous
• Some offspring may have a better chance of survival
• Example: if the temperature rises due to climate change, an
animal with less fur or reduced body fat would have an
advantage

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 The Phases of Meiosis
• Meiosis consists of two nuclear and cytoplasmic
divisions: meiosis I and meiosis II
• DNA is replicated in S phase of the cell cycle prior to
meiosis I but not meiosis II
• Each includes prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase stages
• During meiosis I, the partner homologous
chromosomes pair and then separate and move into
different nuclei
• In meiosis II, the sister chromatids separate from each
other and are distributed to two different nuclei
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 Meiosis I
 Prophase I
• A spindle forms
• The nuclear envelope fragments
• The nucleolus disappears
• Each chromosome is duplicated (consists of two
identical sister chromatids)
• Homologous chromosomes pair up and physically align
themselves against each other side by side (synapsis)
• Synapsed homologs are referred to as a bivalent (two
homologues) or a tetrad (four chromatids)
• Paired homologous chromosomes exchange genetic
material (crossing-over)
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 Meiosis I

 Metaphase I
• Bivalents held together by chiasmata are aligned at the
spindle independently of one another
• Homologous pairs are arranged at the metaphase plate
• The two kinetochores of a duplicated chromosome are
attached to the same kinetochore spindle fiber
• The independent assortment of chromosomes
contributes to the genetic variability of the daughter
cells

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 Meiosis I

 Anaphase I
• Synapsis breaks up
• Homologous chromosomes of each bivalent separate from one another
and move towards opposite poles
• Each pole randomly receives a maternal or paternal
• chromosome from each homologous pair
• Sister chromatids do not separate
• This splitting of the homologous pair reduces the chromosome
number from 2n to n
• Each is still a duplicated chromosome with 2 chromatids

 Telophase I
• Daughter cells have one duplicated chromosome (n) from each
homologous pair
• Spindle disappears
• Nuclear envelope may reorganize, nucleoli may reappear, and
cytokinesis may or may not take place

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 Meiosis1

• Interkinesis
 Two haploid (n) daughter cells, each with one
duplicated chromosome of each type
 Interkinesis is similar to mitotic interphase, except
• It is usually shorter
• DNA replication does not occur.

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 Meiosis I

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 Meiosis-II
• Meiosis II (mitosis of two haploid cells) and gamete
formation
 Prophase II—Chromosomes condense
 Metaphase II—Chromosomes align at metaphase plate
• They are no longer in homologous pairs
 Anaphase II
• Centromere dissolves
• Sister chromatids separate and become daughter
chromosomes that are not duplicated
 Telophase II and cytokinesis produce:
• Four haploid (n) cells all are not genetically unique to
parental cell
• Gametes containing a mixture of maternal and paternal genes
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 Meiosis II

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 Meiosis II

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 Stages of Meiosis

When diploid homologous chromosomes pair during meiosis I, crossing –over

occurs, as represented by the chromosomes, with two copies of each during meiosis
II. Following meiosis II and the separation of sister chromatids, four haploid daughter
cells are produced.

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Meiosis
 Meiosis Compared to Mitosis

• Mitosis
• Meiosis  Requires one nuclear division
 Requires two nuclear divisions  Chromosomes do not synapse
 Chromosome's synapse and nor cross over
cross over  Centromeres dissolve in
 Centromeres survive Anaphase I mitotic anaphase
 Halves chromosome number  Preserves chromosome
 Produces four daughter nuclei number
 Produces daughter cells  Produces two daughter nuclei
genetically different from parent  Produces daughter cells
and each other genetically identical to parent
 Used only for sexual and to each other
reproduction  Used for asexual reproduction
and growth

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 Meiosis Compared to Mitosis—Similarities

• An orderly series of stages is involved in the sorting and

division of chromosomes

• The stages include prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, and

telophase

• Spindle fibers play an active role in sorting chromosomes.

• Cytokinesis follows the end of the process to divide cytoplasm

between daughter cells

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 Meiosis I Compared to Mitosis
Table 10.1 Meiosis I Compared to Mitosis
Meiosis I Mitosis
Prophase I Prophase
Pairing of homologous No pairing of chromosomes
chromosomes
Metaphase I Metaphase
Bivalents at metaphase plate Duplicated chromosomes at
metaphase plate
Anaphase I Anaphase
Homologues of each bivalent Sister chromatids separate,
separate and duplicated becoming daughter
chromosomes move to poles chromosomes that move to the
poles

Telophase I Telophase
Two haploid daughter cells, not Two diploid daughter cells,
identical to the parent cell identical to the parent cell

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 Meiosis II Compared to Mitosis
Table 10.2 Meiosis II Compared to Mitosis
Meiosis II Mitosis
Prophase II Prophase
No Pairing of chromosomes No pairing of chromosomes
Metaphase II Metaphase
Haploid number of duplicated Diploid number of duplicated
chromosomes at metaphase chromosomes at metaphase
plate plate
Anaphase II Anaphase
Sister chromatids separate, Sister chromatids separate,
becoming daughter becoming daughter
chromosomes that move to the chromosomes that move to the
poles poles
Telophase II Telophase
Two haploid daughter cells, not Two diploid daughter cells,
genetically identical identical to the parent cell

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 Meiosis Compared to Mitosis

Compare metaphase I of meiosis to metaphase of mitosis. Only in metaphase I of

meiosis are the homologous chromosomes paired at the metaphase plate. Members of
homologous chromosome pairs separate during anaphase I, and therefore the daughter
cells are haploid. The exchange of color between non-sister chromatids represents the
crossing-over that occurred during meiosis I. The blue chromosomes were inherited from
the paternal parent, and the red chromosomes were inherited from the maternal parent
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 The Cycle of Life
• A life cycle is all the reproductive events that occur from one generation to
the next similar generation
• In plants, they become spores, reproductive cells develop into new
multicellular structures without the need to fuse with another reproductive
cell.
• The multicellular structure is the haploid generation, which produce
gametes.
• The resulting zygote develops into a diploid generation “individuals”
• Plants have both haploid and diploid phases in their life cycle and plants
are said to exhibit an alternation of generations.
• The haploid individual:
– Is called the gametophyte
– May be larger or smaller than the diploid individual
• The diploid individual:
– Is called the sporophyte
– May be larger or smaller than the haploid individual

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 The Cycle of Life

• Mosses are haploid for most of their life cycle

• In fungi and most algae, only the zygote is diploid
undergoes meiosis , and the daughter cells develop
into new individuals. Therefore, these organism is
always haploid.
• Ferns and higher plants are diploid for most of their
life cycles
• In plants, algae, and fungi gametes are produced by
haploid individuals

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 The Cycle of Life
• In animals:
 “Individuals” are diploid and produce haploid gametes.
 The only haploid part of the life cycle is the gametes.
 The products of meiosis are always gametes.
 Meiosis occurs only during gametogenesis.
• Production of sperm
– Spermatogenesis (in brief)
– All four cells become sperm
• Production of eggs
– Oogenesis (in brief)
– One of the four nuclei receives the majority of the
cytoplasm.
» Becomes the egg or ovum
» Others wither away as polar bodies

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 The Cycle of Life
• Human Life Cycle:
 Sperm and egg are produced by meiosis in spermatogenesis and
oogenesis
 A sperm and egg fuse at fertilization
 Results in a zygote
• The one-celled stage of an individual of the next generation
• Undergoes mitosis
 It results in a multicellular embryo that gradually takes on
features determined when the zygote was formed.
 All growth occurs as mitotic division
 As a result of mitosis, each somatic cell in the body
• Has same number of chromosomes as zygote
• Has the same genetic makeup, which was determined when the zygote
was formed

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 Spermatogenesis in Humans
• The testis contains stem cells called spermatogonia

• Spermatogonia make primary spermatocytes that

undergo spermatogenesis

• Primary spermatocytes with 46 chromosomes undergo

meiosis I to form two haploid secondary
spermatocytes, each with 23 chromosomes
• Secondary spermatocytes divide during meiosis II to
produce four spermatids
• Four spermatids differentiate into a viable sperm
(spermatozoa)

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 Oogenesis in Humans
 Ovaries contain stem cells called oogonia
 Oogonia produce many primary oocytes with 46 chromosomes
during fetal development
 Primary oocytes begin oogenesis but only a few continue at
sexual maturity of female
 Primary oocytes undergo meiosis I to form two haploid cells
with 23 chromosomes. One of these cells, termed a secondary
oocyte that receives almost all of the cytoplasm. The other is
polar body that may disintegrate or divide again
 The secondary oocyte begins meiosis II but stops at metaphase
II, leaves the ovary, and enters the uterine tube
 If there are no sperm, the secondary oocyte disintegrates
without completing meiosis
 If there are sperm, it triggers the secondary oocyte to complete
meiosis II and another polar body forms

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 The Human Life Cycle

Meiosis in males is a part of sperm production, and Meiosis in females is a part of egg
production. When a haploid sperm fertilizes a haploid egg, the zygote is diploid. The
zygote undergoes mitosis as it develops into a newborn child. Mitosis continues
throughout life during growth and repair.
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 Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis in
Mammals

Spermatogenesis produce four viable sperm, whereas oogenesis produces one egg and at
least two polar bodies. In humans, both sperm and egg have 23 chromosomes each;
therefore, following fertilization, the zygote has 46 chromosomes.

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 Changes in Chromosome Number and
Structure
• Meiosis almost always proceeds normally.
• Euploidy is the correct number of chromosomes in a
species.
• Aneuploidy is a change in the chromosome number.
 A karyotype is a display of chromosomes arranged by size, shape, and banding
pattern for observing aneuploidies.
 Aneuploidy results from nondisjunction—failure of chromosomes to separate
• Nondisjunction can occur in meiosis I or meiosis II
• It may result in gain or loss of chromosomes.
– Monosomy – only one of a particular type of chromosome (2n-1)
– Trisomy – three of a particular type of chromosome(2n+1)

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 Changes in Chromosome Number and
Structure
• Trisomy occurs when an individual has three of a particular type of
chromosome.
 In humans, three autosomal trisomies are viable beyond birth.
• The most common autosomal trisomy seen among humans is Trisomy
21.
 Also called Down syndrome
• The chance of a woman having a child with Down syndrome
increases with her age.
– The longer the oocytes are stored, the greater the chances of
nondisjunction occurring.
 Recognized by these characteristics:
• Short stature
• Eyelid fold
• Flat face
• Stubby fingers
• Wide gap between first and second toes
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 Trisomy 21

Persons with Down syndrome, or trisomy 21, have an extra chromosome 21. a. The
karyotype of an individual with Down syndrome shows three copies of chromosome
21. Therefore, the individual has three copies instead of two copies of each gene on
chromosome 21. b. An extra copy of the Gart gene, which leads to high levels of
purine in the blood, accounts for many of the characteristics of Down syndrome.

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