1.1 What is a computer network?

 A computer network is a system in which a number of

independent computers are linked together to share data
and peripherals, such as files and printers. In the
modern world, computer networks have become almost
indispensable.
 All major businesses, and governmental and educational
institutions make use of computer networks to such an
extent that it is now difficult to imagine a world without
them.

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 Definition cont…
2

Networking - the interconnection of workstations, peripherals, terminals and other

devices.
Whatis.com: “In information technology, networking is the construction, design,
and use of network, including the physical (cabling, hub, bridge, switch, router, and
so forth), the selection and use of telecommunication protocol and computer
software for using and managing the network, and the establishment of operation
policies and procedures related to the network.”

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 Benefits of Network Computing
3

 Networks increase efficiency and reduce costs.

Computer networks achieve these goals in four
primary ways:
I. Sharing Information (Or Data)
II. Sharing Hardware (Peripheral Devices)
III. Sharing Programs/Software
IV. Centralizing Administration And Support

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 1.2. Basics of Data Communication
4

 Data transmission is the process of conveying data

between two points by way of a communication
medium. A wide variety of media are available :
 Bounded media confine the data to specific physical
pathways. Common examples of bounded media are wire and
optical fiber cables.
 unbounded media transmit the data-carrying signal through
space, independent of a cable. Broadcast radio and television
are examples of unbounded media

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 5

 The term communication can be defined as the

process of transferring messages between two entities.
Based on what these two entities are, there are three
basic types of communication:
I. Human-to-Human
II. Computer-to-computer
III. Human-to-Computer

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6

 In all the three cases, three basic elements

can be identified.
 The source (the sender)

 The media (the channel)

 The destination (the receiver)

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 1.3 Fundamentals of Information Transmission
media and coding
7

 A message should first be encoded in such

a way that it can be transmitted through a
channel (medium), it is then transmitted,
and finally, it is decoded into a form that
can be understood by the destination at the
other end. This holds true for voice
communication, or data communication

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8

ion
est inat
D
ding
D eco
n
smissio
Tran
ding
E n co
er
Send

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9

 Data communication involves transporting

data from one point to another. This is an
instance of computer-to-computer
communication, i.e., both the source and the
destination are computer devices, and the
transmission media may be telephone lines,
satellite links, microwave links, etc.

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 Transmission Impairment
10

 It means that signals that are transmitted at the

beginning of the medium are not the same as the
signals that are received at the end of the medium
that is what is sent is not what is received.
 The transmission impairment mainly causes
because of the following reasons.
Attenuation
 It is the loss of energy which can be occurred due

to the decrease in signal & increase in the distance.

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11
Distortion
Distortion mainly occurs because of the change in

signal shape. This kind of distortion can be observed

from various signals which have different
frequencies.
Every frequency component has its separate
propagation speed because they arrive at a different
time which leads to the delay in distortion.
Noise
When data is transmitted above a transmission

medium, an unwanted signal can be added to it. So

the noise can be created.
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 Transmission Mode
12

 Simplex :
 Communication can take place in only one

direction like one-way traffic. Devices

connected to such a circuit are either a send-
only or a receive only device e.g a line
printer. This is very inadequate because the
sender needs an acknowledgement, control
or error signal.
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 Simplex
13

Sender Receiver

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14

 HALF-DUPLEX: transmits data in both

directions but only in one direction at a
time. It can alternatively send and receive
data. It requires two wires. It is good for
voice communication because only one
person is supposed to speak at a time.

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15

 Half-duplex

Sender Receiver
(Sender )

(Receiver)

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16

 FULL DUPLEX:
 It allows information to flow simultaneously in
both directions on the transmission path. It is
an advantage over half-duplex which requires
the lines to be turned-around each time the
direction is reversed and half duplex is
unacceptable in some applications which
require simultaneous transmission in both
directions.
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17

 Full-duplex

Sender Receiver
and and
Receiver Sender

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 The Three Mode of Data transmission
18

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 Elements of Data Communication
19

 There are mainly five elements of data communications.

1. message

2. sender

3. receiver

4. transmission medium

5. protocol
 The message simply refers to data or piece of information
which is to be communicated.
 Sender It is simple a device that sends data message.

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 Cont’d…
20

 Receiver: It is a device that receives message.

 Transmission medium: It is physical path by which
data or message travels from sender to receiver.
 Protocol: the protocol is a set of rules that govern
data communication.

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 Protocols and standards
21

 A protocol is a set of rules that govern data

communications.
 A protocol defines:
 what is communicated,
 how it is communicated, and
 when it is communicated.

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 Cont’d…
22

 The key elements of a protocol are:

 syntax, semantics, and timing.
 Syntax: structure or format of the data
 Semantics: the meaning of each section of bits
 Timing : refers to two characteristics: when data should
be sent and how fast they can be sent.

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 Protocols and standards (cont..)
23

 Standards ensure open and competitive market for

equipment manufacturers and in guaranteeing national
and international interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and processes.
 Data communication standards fall into two categories:
 de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by convention") and
 de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").

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 Circuit Switching and Packet Switching
24

Circuit Switching
Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes

a dedicated path between sender and receiver.

In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection

is established then the dedicated path will remain to exist

until the connection is terminated.
Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way

as the telephone works.

A complete end-to-end path must exist before the

communication takes place.

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 Cont’d…
25
 In case of circuit switching technique, when any user
wants to send the data, voice, video, a request signal is
sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the
acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the
dedicated path.
 After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path
transfers the data.
 Circuit switching is used in public telephone network and
It is used for voice transmission.
 Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit
switching technology.
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 Packet Switching
26

 The packet switching is a switching technique in which the

message is sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller
pieces, and they are sent individually.
 The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets.
 Packets are given a unique number to identify their order at
the receiving end.
 Every packet contains some information in its headers such
as source address, destination address and sequence
number.

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27

 Packets will travel across the network, taking the

shortest path as possible.
 All the packets are reassembled at the receiving
end in correct order.
 If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the
message will be sent to resend the message.
 If the correct order of the packets is reached, then
the acknowledgment message will be sent.

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 Types of Networks
Based on geographical Area
28

 Local Area Network

 Privately owned
 Links the devices in a single office, building, or
campus
 Limited in size and distance
 Has speed of 100 or 1000 Mbps (today)
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 Cont’d…
29

 A LAN is a high-speed communications system designed

to link computers and other data processing devices
together within a small geographic area such as:
 a workgroup, department, or a single floor of a
building.
 Several LANs can also be interconnected within a
building or campus of buildings to extend connectivity.

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 LAN
30

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 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
31

 Is designed to extend over an entire city

 It connect a number of LANs in to a larger network
so that resources can be shared LAN-to-LAN as
well as device to device.
 Can be wholly owned and operated by a private
company, or it may be a service provided by a
public company, such as a local telephone
company.

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 Cont’d…
32

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 Wide Area Network (WAN)
33

 Provides long-distance transmission of data, image,

audio, and video information over large
geographic areas that may comprise a country, a
continent, or even the whole world.

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 Types of Networks
Based on Architecture
34

1. Peer-to-Peer Networks
When LAN and WAN technologies are used, many
computers are interconnected to provide services to their
users.
To accomplish this, networked computers take on different

roles or functions in relation to each other.

Some types of applications require computers to function as

equal partners.
Other types of applications distribute their work so that one

computer functions to serve a number of others in an unequal

relationship.
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 Cont’d…
35

 Two computers generally use request and response

protocols to communicate with each other.

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 Cont’d…
36
 One computer issues a request for a service, and a second
computer receives and responds to that request.
 The requestor acts like a client and the responder acts like a server.
 In a peer-to-peer network, networked computers act as equal
partners, or peers.
 As peers, each computer can take on the client function or the
server function.
 Computer A may request for a file from Computer B, which then
sends the file to Computer A.
 Computer A acts like the client and Computer B acts like the
server.
 At a later time, Computers A and B can reverse roles.

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 Cont’d…
37

 In a peer-to-peer network:
 individual users control their own resources.
 The users may decide to share certain files with other
users.
 The users may also require passwords before they allow
others to access their resources.
 Since individual users make these decisions, there is no
central point of control or administration in the network.
 In addition, individual users must back up their own
systems to be able to recover from data loss in case of
failures.

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 Cont’d…
38

 When a computer acts as a server, the user of that machine

may experience reduced performance as the machine
serves the requests made by other systems.
 Peer-to-peer networks are relatively easy to install and
operate.
 No additional equipment is necessary beyond a suitable
operating system installed on each computer.
 Since users control their own resources, no dedicated
administrators are needed.

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 Cont’d…
39

 As networks grow, peer-to-peer relationships become

increasingly difficult to coordinate.
 A peer-to-peer network works well with ten or fewer computers.
 Since peer-to-peer networks do not scale well, their efficiency
decreases rapidly as the number of computers on the
network increases.
 Also, individual users control access to the resources on their
computers, which means security may be difficult to maintain.
 The client/server model of networking can be used to overcome
the limitations of the peer-to-peer network

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 2. Client/Server Networks
40

 In a client/server arrangement, network services are located on

a dedicated computer called a server.
 The server responds to the requests of clients.
 The server is a central computer that is continuously available
to respond to requests from clients for file, print, application,
and other services.
 Most network operating systems adopt the form of a
client/server relationship.
 Typically, desktop computers function as clients and one or
more computers with additional processing power, memory,
and specialized software function as servers.
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 Cont’d…
41

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 Cont’d…
42

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 Cont’d…
43

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 Cont’d…
44

 Servers are designed to handle requests from many clients

simultaneously.
 Before a client can access the server resources, the client
must be identified and be authorized to use the resource.
 Each client is assigned an account name and password that
is verified by an authentication service.
 The authentication service guards access to the network.
 With the centralization of user accounts, security, and
access control, server-based networks simplify the
administration of large networks.

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 Cont’d…
45

 The concentration of network resources such as files, printers, and

applications on servers also makes it easier to back-up and maintain the
data.
 Resources can be located on specialized, dedicated servers for easier
access.
 Most client/server systems also include ways to enhance the network with
new services that extend the usefulness of the network.
 The centralized functions in a client/server network has substantial
advantages and some disadvantages.
 Although a centralized server enhances security, ease of access, and
control, it introduces a single point of failure into the network.
 Without an operational server, the network cannot function at all.
 Servers require a trained, expert staff member to administer and maintain.
 Server systems also require additional hardware and specialized software
that add to the cost

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Peer-to-
Peer and Client/Server Networks
46

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 Advantage and disadvantage cont…
47

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 Components of a Network
48

 The components required to operate a network can

be divided into two major categories.
1. Hardware 2. Software
The hardware components of a network consist of
the following five items
 Server  Cabling
 Workstation  Network Interface Cards (NIC)
 A concentrator or wiring center (optional)

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 Network components (cont…)
49

The software necessary to operate a network consists

of four items
Network operating system
 Server software
The operating system of the workstation
 Client software

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 Network components (cont…)
50
 Hardware
 The Server
 The server functions as the central repository
resources/services the network provides.
 Usually the server is also responsible for controlling
which users on which computers in the network are
granted access to a service.
 Workstations
 A place where the services of the server are used
 Usually not as good as the server in one way or another

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 Network components (cont…)
51

 Cabling
 This is what connects the file server and
workstations. Another phrase for cabling is
transmission media.
 There are various types of transmission media,
including coaxial cable, twisted-pair cable (both
shielded and unshielded), and fiber-optic.

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 Network components (cont…)
52

 Network interface card (NIC)

 The NIC is located in every workstation on the LAN as
well as in the server.
 It is a board that plugs into one of the expansion slots
on the motherboard of a workstation and the server,
thereby providing a connector on the back to hook to
some sort of transmission media (including wireless
media).
 Acts as a “transmitter” and “receiver” – transceiver.

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 Network components (cont…)
53

 To accommodate multiple workstations, a hub or central

data collecting area is often used, although certain network
architectures such as linear bus structures do not use hubs
or concentrators.
 On certain networks, a hub allows for multiple connections
or splitting of the network cable.
 Two types
 Hubs: share bandwidth but are cheaper
 Switches: conserve bandwidth but are more expensive

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 Network components (cont…)
54

 Software
 The Network Operating System
 Software that resides on the server.
 Controls virtually all the activity on the network.
 The NOS manages access to the resource on the
server and handles security of the resources on the
server.

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 Network components (cont…)
55

 The workstation operating system

 The operating system software for each workstation is
loaded at the workstation.
 This software is essential for the workstation to operate,
even if that workstation is not part of a network
 The server software
 Usually loaded on the server
 Provides an interface through the service given to clients

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 Network components (cont…)
56

 Most popular ones are web server, mail server,

print server, file server, database server, etc.
The client software
 Used to access the service given by the server

software on the server

 Capable of interfacing with server software

 E.g. web browsers, e-mail clients etc

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 1.4: Network Topologies
57

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58

 Topology refers to the way in which multiple

devices are interconnected via communication
links.
 There are two types of topology: physical and
logical.
 Physical topology is the mapping of the nodes
(computers) of a network and the physical
connections between them – i.e., the layout of
wiring, cables, the locations of nodes, and the
interconnections between the nodes and the cabling
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59

or wiring system.
 Logical topology is bound to network protocols and

describe how data is moved across the network.

 There are four main network topologies; bus, ring,

mesh, star, and hybrid.

 The following four types of physical topologies

are frequently used in computer networking:

1.Star 2. Bus 3. Ring 4. Hybrid

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 1. Bus Topology
60

 In a bus topology, all devices attach to the same

transmission medium.
 The medium has a physical beginning and end.
 The terminating resistor prevents data reflections
from coming across as data corruption.
 The bus is considered a multipoint system because all
devices tap into the same backbone cable.

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61

 An important characteristic to remember in bus

topologies is that all data signals are broadcast
throughout the bus structure.
 In the following diagram, if node B sends a signal to
node C, the signal propagates for the length of the
cable and is seen by nodes A and D as well.
 It is necessary to have an addressing mechanism so
that each node understands which messages it is to
receive and which to ignore.

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62

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 Benefits of Bus topology
63

 Cabling costs are minimized because of

the common trunk.

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 Disadvantages of Bus topology
64

 Difficult to trouble shoot because no

central distribution points exist.
 Cable breaks can disable the entire

segment because they remove the

required termination from each of the two
cable fragments.
 Example: Ethernet, (10Base2)

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 2. Star Topology
65

In a star topology all stations are wired to a central

wiring concentrator called a hub. Similar to a bus
topology, packets sent from one station to another
are repeated to all ports on the hub. This allows all
stations to see each packet sent on the network, but
only the station a packet is addressed to pays
attention to it.

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66

 The diagram illustrates a star topology LAN -- which

is a more robust topology than the bus topology. In a
star topology, each station is connected to a central
wiring concentrator, or hub, by an individual length of
twisted pair cable. The cable is connected to the
station's NIC at one end and to a port on the hub at the
other. The hubs are placed in wiring closets centrally
located in a building.

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67

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 Advantages of Stars topology
68

 Most modern cabling systems are designed in a star

physical topology. The benefits of the star topology
are:
 Each device is isolated on its own cable.
 It is a reliable network and easy to modify
 Easy to add new workstation.
 A node can fail without affecting other nodes

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69
Advantage cont…
 The hub or switch is slightly more expensive
 All data goes through the central point, which can
be equipped with diagnostic devices that make it
easy to trouble shoot and manage the network.
 Hierarchical organization allows isolation of traffic
on the channel.

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70
Disadvantages of Star topology

 Because point-to-point wiring is utilized

for each node, more cable is required.
 Hub failures results in a shutdown of the

entire network

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71
3. Ring Topology
 The ring topology is a physical, closed
loop consisting of point-to-point links.
In the diagram, you can see how each
node on the ring acts as a repeater. It
receives a transmission from the
previous node and amplifies it before
passing it on.
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72

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73
Benefits of Ring topology
 Ring topology has the following
advantage:
 Each repeater duplicates the data signals

so that very little signal degradation

occurs.

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 Disadvantages of Ring topology
74

 Ring topology has the following disadvantages:

 A break in the ring can disable the entire network. Many
ring designs incorporate extra cabling that can be
switched in if a primary cable fails.
 Because each node must have the capability of
functioning as a repeater, the networking devices tend to
be more expensive.

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 4. Hybrid Topology
75

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76

 The hybrid topology scheme combines

multiple topologies into one large topology.
The hybrid network is common in large
wide-area networks. Because each topology
has its own strengths and weaknesses,
several different types can be combined for
maximum effectiveness.
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 Benefits of Hybrid topology
77

 Hybrid topology has the following advantages:

 One company can combine the benefits of several
different types of topologies.
 Workgroup efficiency and traffic can be
customized

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 Disadvantages of Hybrid
78
topology

 The disadvantages of hybrid topology

include the following:
 Devices on one topology cannot be

placed into another topology without

some hardware changes

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79

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80

 A reference model is a conceptual blueprint of how

communications should take place. It addresses all
the processes required for effective communication
and divides these processes into logical groupings
called layers. When a communication system is
designed in this manner, it’s known as layered
architecture.

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81
 Think of it like this: You and some friends want to
start a company. One of the first things you’ll do is
sit down and think through what tasks must be
done, who will do them, the order in which they
will be done, and how they relate to each other.
Ultimately, you might group these tasks into
departments. Let’s say you decide to have an order-
taking department, an inventory department, and a
shipping department. Each of your departments has
its own unique tasks keeping its staff members
busy and requiring them to focus on only their own
duties.
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82

 In the above scenario, departments as a metaphor

for the layers in a communication system. For
things to run smoothly, the staff of each department
will have to trust and rely heavily upon the others
to do their jobs and competently handle their
unique responsibilities. The communication
processes that are related to each other are bound,
or grouped together, at a particular layer.
 The technical term for this idea is called binding.

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83

OSI Reference Model:

 The Open Systems Interconnection reference

model is a layered, abstract representation created

as a guideline for network protocol design.
 The OSI model divides the networking process into

seven logical layers, each of which has unique

functionality and to which are assigned specific
services and protocols.
 In this model, information is passed from one layer

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84

 to the next, starting at the Application layer on the

transmitting host, proceeding down the hierarchy to
the Physical layer, then passing over the
communications channel to the destination host,
where the information proceeds back up the
hierarchy, ending at the Application layer.
Advantages of Reference Models
 The OSI model is hierarchical, and the same

benefits and advantages can apply to any layered

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85

 model. The primary purpose of all such models,

especially the OSI model, is to allow different
vendors’ networks to interoperate.
 Advantages of using the OSI layered model
include, but are not limited to, the following:
 It divides the network communication process into
smaller and simpler components, thus aiding
component development, design, and troubleshooting.
 It allows multiple-vendor development through
standardization of network components.
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86

 It encourages industry standardization by defining

what functions occur at each layer of the model.
 It allows various types of network hardware and
software to communicate.
 It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other
layers, so it does not hamper development.
 The OSI isn’t a physical model, though. Rather, it’s
a set of guidelines that application developers can
use to create and implement applications that run
on a network. It also provides a framework for
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87

 creating and implementing networking standards,

devices, and Internetworking schemes.
 The OSI has seven different layers, divided into
two groups. The top three layers define how the
applications within the end stations will
communicate with each other and with users. The
bottom four layers define how data is transmitted
end to end.
 Understand that the user interfaces with the

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88

 computer at the Application layer and also that the

upper layers are responsible for applications
communicating between hosts. Remember that
none of the upper layers knows anything about
networking or network addresses. That’s the
responsibility of the four bottom layers.

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89

•Data flow is divided into

seven smaller and
manageable steps.
•What devices operate at
each layer.
•As a result, you will
understand how to trouble
shoot network problems.
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90

• The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD)

created the TCP/IP reference model
because it wanted a network that could
survive any conditions, even a nuclear war.

•The main purpose was to move packets

from any point to any other point regardless
of the condition of any particular node.
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91

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 Transmission media
92

 a transmission medium is a physical path between

the transmitter and the receiver.
 Transmission Media is broadly classified into the
following types:
 1 Guided
 2 unguided

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93
 Guided Media:
 It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded
transmission media. Signals being transmitted are
directed and confined in a narrow pathway by
using physical links.
 Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances
 There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
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 1Coaxial Cable
94

 The coaxial cable design has been adapted for different

purposes. Coax is an important type of cable that is
used in wireless and cable access technologies. Coax
cables are used to attach antennas to wireless devices.
The coaxial cable carries radio frequency (RF) energy
between the antennas and the radio equipment.
 Coax is also the most widely used media for
transporting high radio frequency signals over wire,
especially cable television signals. Traditional cable
television, exclusively transmitting in one direction,
was composed completely of coax cable.
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 Coaxial Cable
95

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 Coaxial …
96

 They come in two basic sizes

 Thicknet
 Has larger diameter
 Good noise rejection characteristics
 Longer cable run
 Difficult to lay the cable
 It is rarely used in LANs
 Thinnet
 Smaller diameter
 Relatively flexible, easier to lay the cable
 Poor noise rejection
 Supports lower bandwidth
 No longer in use
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 2 Fiber Optics
97

 It uses the concept of reflection of light through a

core made up of glass or plastic. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering
called the cladding. It is used for the transmission
of large volumes of data.
 The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional.
The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer)
supports two modes, namely unidirectional and
bidirectional mode.

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 3Twisted pair
98

 This type of copper cable comes in

different formats:
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

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 STP
99

 STP cable shields the entire bundle of wires

within the cable as well as the individual wire
pairs. STP provides better noise protection
than UTP cabling, however at a significantly
higher price

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 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
100

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 UTP
101

 UTP is a four-pair wire medium used in a variety of

networks.
 each pair of wires is twisted around each other.
 This type of cable relies on the cancellation effect
produced by the twisted wire pairs to limit signal
degradation caused by EMI and RFI.
 Category 5e is the cable most frequently
recommended and implemented in installations.
 Category 6 UTP cables are also available

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 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
102

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 The figure shows some commonly used copper media and
connectors.
103

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 UTP
104

 Advantages
 is easy to install
 Is less expensive than other types of networking
media.
 Has small external diameter
 Disadvantages
 Error prone
 Commonly used connector for LANs is an RJ-45
connector,

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 UTP connections
105

 The transmit pin of the source device needs to

ultimately connect to the receiving pin of the
destination device
 There are three types of connections that are used
to connect different devices
 Straight Through cables
 Crossover Cables
 Rollover cables

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 Straight Through cables
106

 Are used to connect dissimilar devices

 Switch/Hub to PC
 Switch/Hub to Router
 Straight Through cable
pin out

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 Cross over cable
107

 Connects
 Hub to hub
 Switch to switch
 PC to PC
 PC to Router??
 Pin out:

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UTP implementation
 An RJ-45 connector for UTP cable
 RJ stand for Registered Jack
 45 refers to the specific wiring sequence
 A transceiver converts one type of connection to another
Example: AUI to RJ-45, coax, or fibre optic connector

Crossover Straight-through

Switch to router
Switch to switch Router to router
Switch to PC or server
Switch to hub PC to PC
Hub to PC or server
Hub to hub Router to PC ???
X to no X
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 Rollover Cable
109

 Connects
 A PC with console port of a router
 Also called Console Cable
 Pin-out:

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 Fiber Optic Cables
110

 Light rays are transmitted through the core

 Two types of cable
 Multimode and Singlemode fiber cables

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 Fiber Cable
111
 Unguided Media
112

 It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded

transmission media. No physical medium is required
for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
 The signal is broadcasted through air

 Less Secure

 Used for larger distances

 There are some types of Signals transmitted through

unguided media:

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 1 Radiowaves
113

 These are easy to generate and can penetrate

through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency
Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and
cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

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 2 Microwaves
114

 It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and

receiving antennas need to be properly aligned with
each other. The distance covered by the signal is
directly proportional to the height of the antenna.
Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are
majorly used for mobile phone communication and
television distribution.

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 3 Infrared
115

 Infrared waves are used for very short distance

communication. They cannot penetrate through
obstacles. This prevents interference between
systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is
used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard,
printer, etc.

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 End of Chapter One
116

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117

 End of Chapter One

 Thank You !

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