Chapter Two

Basics of C++
 Programming paradigm

 A programming paradigm is a fundamental style of programming

 Unstructured Programming

 Procedural programming.

 Structured Programming

 Object Oriented Programming

 Unstructured Programming
 Consisting only of one large (usually main)
program
 “main program”' stands for a sequence of
commands or statements
 data is global throughout the whole program

 disadvantages
 Complex
 if the same statement sequence is needed at
different locations within the program, the
sequence must be copied
 Procedural programming
 based upon the concept of procedure call
 A procedure call is used to invoke the procedure
 Procedures (routines, subroutines, methods,
functions) simply contain a series of
computational steps to be carried out to solve a
problem
 We have a single program, which is divided into small
pieces called procedures

 Advantage
 to re-use the same code at different places in the
program without copying it
 easier way to keep track of program flow
 Example
 FORTRAN, ADA
 Structured Programming
 is a subset of procedural programming (also
known as modular programming)
 procedures of a common functionality are
grouped together into separate modules
 Each module can have its own data
 allows each module to manage an internal state
which is modified by calls to procedures of this
module
 top-down design model
 map out the overall program structure into
separate subsections
 Advantage
 Reuse
 easier to understand and modify
 Object Oriented Programming - OOP

Is a method of implementation in which programs are

organized as cooperative collections of objects
Data and operations are grouped together
Each object is capable of receiving messages, processing
data, and sending messages to other objects
Modeling of the domain as objects so that the
implementation naturally reflects the problem at hand.
History Note
First programmable computer
Designed by Charles Babbage
Began work in 1822
Not completed in Babbage’s life time

First programmer
Ada Augusta, Countess of Lovelace
 Colleague of Babbage
 Programming and Problem Solving

 Algorithm
 A sequence of precise instructions which
leads to a solution

 Program
 An algorithm expressed in a language the computer
can understand
 Program Design
 Programming is a creative process
 No complete set of rules for creating a program

 Program Design Process

 Problem Solving Phase
 Result is an algorithm that solves the problem
 Implementation Phase
 Result is the algorithm translated into a programming
language
Problem Solving Phase
 Be certain the task is completely specified
 What is the input?
 What information is in the output?
 How is the output organized?

 Develop the algorithm before implementation

 Experience shows this saves time in getting your
program to run.
 Test the algorithm for correctness
 Implementation Phase
 Translate the algorithm into a programming language
 Easier as you gain experience with the language
 Compile the source code
 Locates errors in using the programming language
 Run the program on sample data
 Verify correctness of results
 Results may require modification of the algorithm and
program
 Introduction to C++
 Where did C++ come from?
 Derived from the C language
 C was derived from the B language
 B was derived from the BCPL language
 C++ History

 C developed by Dennis Ritchie at AT&T Bell Labs in the

1970s.
 Used to maintain UNIX systems
 Many commercial applications written in c
 C++ developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at AT&T Bell Labs in
the 1980s.
 Overcame several shortcomings of C
 Incorporated object oriented programming
 C remains a subset of C++
Structure of C++ Program
[Preprocessor directives]
[Global variable declarations]
[Prototypes of functions]
[Definitions of functions]
 Writing a Program

 Commercial text editor or word processor that can

produce text files
 Your compiler may have its own built-in text editor
 Named with the extension .CPP
 Compiling
 The compiler converts source code to object code
 This file is often named with the extension .OBJ
 Testing and Debugging
 Bug
 A mistake in a program
 Debugging
 Eliminating mistakes in programs
 Program Errors

 Syntax errors
 Violation of the grammar rules of the language
 Discovered by the compiler
 Error messages may not always show correct location of
errors
 Run-time errors
 Error conditions detected by the computer at run-time
 Logic errors
 Errors in the program’s algorithm
 Most difficult to diagnose
 Computer does not recognize such an error
 Linking
 C++ programs are typically created by
 linking together one or more OBJ files
 one or more libraries
 A library is a collection of linkable files
 A Linker combines
 The object code for the programs we write
and
 The object code for the pre-compiled routines
into
 The machine language program the CPU can run
Summary
The steps to create an executable file are
Create a source code file, with a .CPP extension.

 Compile the source code into a file with the .OBJ

extension.

 Link your OBJ file with any needed libraries to produce

an executable program
 Program is created in
• Phases of C++ the editor and stored
Editor Disk on disk.
Programs:
Preprocessor program
1. Edit Preprocessor Disk processes the code.
Compiler creates
2. Preprocess Compiler Disk object code and stores
it on disk.
3. Compile
Linker Disk Linker links the object
4. Link Primary Memory
code with the libraries

5. Load Loader
Loader puts program
6. Execute in memory.
Disk ..
..
..

Primary Memory
CPUtakes each
CPU instruction and
executes it, possibly
storing new data
..
.. values as the program
..
executes.
 Showing Sample program
 Every C++ program has a number of components
 main function
 some variable declarations
 some executable statements
 C++ Programs

 A C++ program is a collection of one or more

subprograms, called functions
 Every C++ program has a function called main

 The smallest individual unit of a program written in any

language is called a token
 Keyboard and Screen I/O

#include <iostream>

input data output data

executing
Keyboard program Screen

cin cout

(of type istream) (of type ostream)

 Insertion Operator ( << )
 Variable cout is predefined to denote an output stream
that goes to the standard output device (display screen).

 The insertion operator << called “put to” takes 2

operands.

 The left operand is a stream expression, such as cout.

The right operand is an expression of simple type or a
string constant.
 Output Statements

SYNTAX

cout << Expression << Expression . . . ;

cout statements can be linked together using << operator.

These examples yield the same output:

cout << “The answer is “ ;

cout << 3 * 4 ;

cout << “The answer is “ << 3 * 4 ;

 Output Statements (String constant)
 String constants (in double quotes) are to be printed as is, without the
quotes.
 cout<<“Enter the number of candy bars ”;
 OUTPUT: Enter the number of candy bars
 “Enter the number of candy bars ” is called a prompt.
 All user inputs must be preceded by a prompt to tell the user what is
expected.
 You must insert spaces inside the quotes if you want them in the output.
 Do not put a string in quotes on multiple lines.
 Output Statements (Expression)
 All expressions are computed and then outputted.
 cout << “The answer is ” << 3 * 4 ;
 OUTPUT: The answer is 12
 Escape Sequences
 The backslash is called the escape character.
 It tells the compiler that the next character is “escaping” it’s
typical definition and is using its secondary definition.
 Examples:
 new line: \n
 horizontal tab: \t
 backslash: \\
 double quote \”
 Newline
 cout<<“\n” and cout<<endl both are used to insert a
blank line.
 Advances the cursor to the start of the next line rather
than to the next space.
 Always end the output of all programs with this
statement.
 Extraction Operator (>>)
 Variable cin is predefined to represent an input stream from
the standard input device (the keyboard)
 The extraction operator >> called “get from” takes 2
operands. The left operand is a stream expression, such as
cin--the right operand is a variable of simple type.
 Operator >> attempts to extract the next item from the
input stream and store its value in the right operand
variable.
 Input Statements
SYNTAX

cin >> Variable >> Variable . . . ;

cin statements can be linked together using >> operator.

These examples yield the same output:

cin >> x;
cin >> y;

cin >> x >> y;

 How Extraction Operator works?

 Input is not entered until user presses <ENTER> key.

 Allows backspacing to correct.
 Skips whitespaces (space, tabs, etc.)
 Multiple inputs are stored in the order entered:
 cin>>num1>>num2;
 User inputs: 3 4
 Assigns num1 = 3 and num2 = 4
 First Program in C++

1. #include <iostream.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. cout << "Hello World!\n";
5. return 0;
6. }
First Program in C++: Printing a Line of Text
(Cont.)

 Preprocessor directives
 Processed by preprocessor before compiling
 Begin with #
 Example
 #include <iostream>
 Tells preprocessor to include the input/output stream header file
<iostream>
 Common Programming Error

 Forgetting to include the <iostream> header file in a

program that inputs data from the key­board or outputs
data to the screen causes the compiler to issue an
error message, because the compiler cannot recognize
references to the stream components (e.g., cout).
 First Program in C++: Printing a Line of Text
(Cont.)
 Function main
 A part of every C++ program
 Exactly one function in a program must be main
 what will be executed when you run your program
 “main” is function where execution starts
 Can “return” a value
 Example
 int main()
 This main function returns an integer (whole number)
 Body is delimited by braces ({})
 Statements
 Instruct the program to perform an action
 All statements end with a semicolon (;)
 First Program in C++: Printing a Line of Text
(Cont.)
 Stream insertion operator <<
 Value to right (right operand) inserted into left operand
 Example
 cout << "Hello World!\n";
 Inserts the string " "Hello World!” " into the standard output
 Displays to the screen
 Escape characters
 A character preceded by "\"
 Indicates “special” character output
 Example
 "\n"
 Cursor moves to beginning of next line on the screen
 Common Programming Error

 Omitting the semicolon at the end of a C++ statement is a

syntax error. (preprocessor directives do not end in a
semicolon.) The syntax of a programming language
specifies the rules for creating a proper program in that
language. A syntax error occurs when the compiler
encounters code that violates C++’s language rules (i.e., its
syntax). The compiler normally issues an error message to
help the programmer locate and fix the incorrect code.
 Common Programming Error

 Syntax errors are also called compiler errors, compile-

time errors or compilation errors, because the compiler
detects them during the compilation phase. You will be
unable to execute your program until you correct all the
syntax errors in it.
 First Program in C++: Printing a Line of Text
(Cont.)

 return statement
 One of several means to exit a function
 When used at the end of main
 The value 0 indicates the program terminated successfully
 Example
 return 0;
 Basic Elements
 Five kind of tokens in C++
 Comments
 Keywords (reserved words)
 Identifiers
 Literals
 Operators
 Comments
 Remark about programs
 Explain programs to other programmers
 Improve program readability
 Ignored by compiler
 Two types
 Single-line comment
 Begin with //
 Example
 // This is a text-printing program.
 Multi-line comment
 Start with /*
 End with */
 Typical uses
 Identify program and who wrote it
 Record when program was written
 Add descriptions of modifications
Example
1 /* Fig. 2.1: fig02_01.cpp
2 Text-printing program. */
3 #include <iostream> // allows program to output data to the screen
4
5 // function main begins program execution
6 int main()
7 {
8 cout << "Welcome to C++!\n"; // display message
9
10 return 0; // indicate that program ended successfully
11

12 } // end function main

Welcome to C++!
 Every program should begin with a
comment that describes the purpose of
the program, author, date and time.
 End of 2nd chapter

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