MECHANICS OF SOLIDS

COURSE CODE: 19ECE232

 Syllabus

Unit 1: Stress And Strain

Unit 2: Shear Force And Bending Moment
Unit 3: Complex Stresses
Unit 4: Stresses in Beams
Unit 5: Torsional Stresses in Shafts& Springs
Objectives
 To introduce the concepts of stress, strain, Hooke’s law and their application
 To demonstrate the concept of Shear Force (SF) and Bending Moment (BM).
 To explain the concept of transformation of stresses and principal stresses.
 To facilitate the estimate of bending and shear stresses.
 To demonstrate the variation of shear stress in circular members under
torsion.
Applications
 To Know the Material properties
 To Know the strength of the material
 To design the structure
 To Know he response or deformation of elastic bodies subjected to different
types of loading
 To study the various stresses developed such as bending, shear and torsion
in structural elements
 This course is a prerequisite for Structural Analysis and design courses such
as Design of RCC and Design of Steel structures.
 Coursera Courses

Title of Mapped Coursera

Courses ( List out the coursera Number of GITAM Course
Name of the University Percentage of
courses matching with GITAM. modules mapped with Coursera
offering this course syllabus Mapping
If there is more then one course (1,2,3 etc or All)
subject matching mention it )

Mechanics of Materials I: Module 1-90%

Fundamentals of Stress & Georgia Tech Module 3-100%
Strain and Axial Loading
Module 1 & 3

Mechanics of Materials III: Module 2-100%

Georgia Tech
Beam Bending Module 4-
Module 2 & 4 100%
Text Books

 Strength of Materials by R.Subrahmanian

 Mechanics of Structures ,Vol-I by Dr., J .H . SHAH & S.B JUNARKAR
 Mechanics of Materials by Gere &Timoshenko
Introduction
Types of Forces
 Compressive Force
 Tensile Force
 Stress & Strain
We all deal with stresses and strains in our daily
lives, but the way materials respond to stress
and strain impacts processing, appearance, and
most importantly texture

Rheology is mainly
concerned with
relationship between
strain, stress, and time

1
A Simple Rheology Experiment
Turning around to look for
blemishes on the apple; it does
not tell you anything about the
texture…

Pressing with the finger will

deform the apple (dented) and
this will provide some basic
information on the firmness of
the apple – a simple rheology
experiment!
 Definition of Strain
• Strain is simply a quantitative measure of the extent
to which an element of material has been deformed
• Deformation implies a change of shape (i.e.
dimensional change).
 Definition of Stress
When you press the apple, you
are actually applying a force, or
stress, with your finger to
deform the apple

Stress is simply defined as a force per

unit area

• We can think of stress as a normalised force,

i.e., force acting on a unit area.
• think of stress as the intensity of force
 Definition of Stress

 Force intensity is different

when you press your finger
on the pencil than that of the
pin

Stress is higher with the pin

than that of the pencil,
assuming the same force
magnitude is applied.
 1.1 DIRECT OR NORMAL STRESS

 When a force is transmitted through a body, the body tends to change

its shape or deform. The body is said to be strained.

 Direct Stress = Applied Force (F)

Cross Sectional Area (A)

 Units: Usually N/m2 (Pa), N/mm2, MN/m2, GN/m2

or N/cm2
 Note: 1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2 = 1 MPa
 Direct Stress Contd.

 Direct stress may be tensile, t or compressive, c and result from

forces acting perpendicular to the plane of the cross-section

Tension

Compression
Compressive Stress
Torsional Stress
 Direct Stress Contd.

 Direct stress may be tensile, t or compressive, c and result from


forces acting perpendicular to the plane of the cross-section


Tension

Compression
 1.2 Direct or Normal Strain
 When loads are applied to a body, some deformation will occur resulting to
a change in dimension.

 Consider a bar, subjected to axial tensile loading force, F. If the bar

extension is dl and its original length (before loading) is L, then tensile
strain is:
 Direct or Normal Strain Contd.

F F
L dl

 Direct Strain ( ) = Change in Length

Original Length
i.e.  = dl/L
Direct or Normal Strain Contd.
 As strain is a ratio of lengths, it is dimensionless.
 Similarly, for compression by amount, dl: Compressive strain =
- dl/L
 Note: Strain is positive for an increase in dimension and
negative for a reduction in dimension.
1.3 Shear Stress and Shear Strain
Shear stresses are produced by
equal and opposite parallel forces
not in line.
 The forces tend to make one part
of the material slide over the other
part.
Shear stress is tangential to the
area over which it acts.
Shear Stress and Shear Strain Contd.

x C’
C D D’
F

L P Q

 S R

A B
Shear strain is the distortion produced by shear stress on
an element or rectangular block as above. The shear
strain,  (gamma) is given as:
 = x/L = tan 
Bending Stress
 Shear Stress and Shear Strain
Concluded
  
 For small ,

 Shear strain then becomes the change in the right angle.

 It is dimensionless and is measured in radians.
1.3 Complementary Shear Stress

1
Consider a small element, PQRS of the material in the
last diagram. Let the shear stress created on faces PQ
and RS be
P 1
Q
2

2 S R
1
 Complimentary Shear Stress Contd.

 The element is therefore subjected to a couple and

for equilibrium, a balancing couple must be brought
into action.
 This will only arise from the shear stress on faces
QR and PS.

 Let the shear stresses on these faces be .

2
 Complimentary Shear Stress

Contd.
Let t be the thickness of the material at right angles to the paper and
lengths of sides of element be a and b as shown.
 For equilibrium, clockwise couple = anticlockwise couple
 i.e. Force on PQ (or RS) x a = Force on QR (or PS) x b
Complimentary Shear Stress
Concluded
 Thus: Whenever a shear stress occurs on a
plane within a material, it is automatically
accompanied by an equal shear stress on the
perpendicular plane.
 The direction of the complementary shear
stress is such that their couple opposes that
of the original shear stresses.
1.4 Volumetric Strain
 Hydrostatic stress refers to tensile or compressive stress in all
dimensions within or external to a body.
 Hydrostatic stress results in change in volume of the material.
 Consider a cube with sides x, y, z. Let dx, dy, and dz represent
increase in length in all directions.
 i.e. new volume = (x + dx) (y + dy) (z + dz)
 Volumetric Strain Contd.

 Neglecting products of small quantities:

 New volume = x y z + z y dx + x z dy + x y dz
 Original volume = x y z
 V = z y dx + x z dy + x y dz
 Volumetric strain,  v = z y dx + x z dy + x y dz
xyz
 v = dx/x + dy/y + dz/z
v  x  y  z
 Strains Contd.
 Note: By similar reasoning, on area x y
 a  x  y

 Also: (i) The strain on the diameter of a circle is

equal to the strain on the circumference.
 (ii) The strain on the area of a circle, is equal to
twice the strain on its diameter.
 (iii) Strain on volume of a sphere, is equal to three
times the strain on its diameter.
 Strains Contd.

(iv)Given D and  L asstrainsonthediameter

and lengthof acylinder,

Strainonthevolumeis
 v 2 D  L

These can be proved using the theorem

of small errors
 Examples

 (i) Diameter, D = 2 x radius, r i.e.D = 2 r

 Taking logs: log D = log 2 + log r
 Taking differentials: dD/D = dr/r
 Also: Circumference, C = 2 r 
 i.e. log C = Log 2  r
+ log
dC/C = dr/r = dD/D
 i.e.
c
the strain on the circumference,
D
= strain on the diameter,
 Strains Contd.

(iv) Volume of a cylinder, V =  r2 L where L is the length


Taking logs: log V = log + 2 log r + log L
Taking differentials: dV/V = 2 dr/r + dL/L
i.e. v  2  D   L

v  2 D   L
1.5 Elasticity and Hooke’s Law
 All solid materials deform when they are
stressed, and as stress is increased,
deformation also increases.
 If a material returns to its original size and
shape on removal of load causing
deformation, it is said to be elastic.
 If the stress is steadily increased, a point is
reached when, after the removal of load, not
all the induced strain is removed.
 This is called the elastic limit.
 Hooke’s Law

 States that providing the limit of proportionality of a

material is not exceeded, the stress is directly
proportional to the strain produced.
 If a graph of stress and strain is plotted as load is
gradually applied, the first portion of the graph will be
a straight line.
 The slope of this line is the constant of
proportionality called modulus of Elasticity, E or
Young’s Modulus.
 It is a measure of the stiffness of a material.
 Hooke’s Law

Direct stress 
Modulusof Elasticity, E= 
Direct strain 

Shearstress 
Also: For Shear stress: Modulusof rigidityor shear modulus, G= 
Shearstrain 

Also: Volumetric strain, isv proportional to hydrostatic stress,

 the elastic range
within

i.e. :  / v  K called bulk

modulus.
Stress-Strain Relations of Mild
Steel
Equation For Extension
F
romth
eab
ovee
qua
tio
ns:
 FA/ FL
E  
 dl/L Adl
FL
l
d
AE

This equation for extension is very

important
 Extension For Bar of Varying Cross
Section
F o r a b a r o f v a r y in g c r o s s s e c t io n :

P
A1 A2 A3 P

L1 L2 L3

dl 
F LML  L
1 2

L3 OP
E NA A
1 2 A3 Q
 Factor of Safety

 The load which any member of a machine carries is

called working load, and stress produced by this load
is the working stress.
 Obviously, the working stress must be less than the
yield stress, tensile strength or the ultimate stress.
 This working stress is also called the permissible
stress or the allowable stress or the design stress.
 Factor of Safety Contd.

 Some reasons for factor of safety include the inexactness or

inaccuracies in the estimation of stresses and the non-
uniformity of some materials.

U
ltim
ateo
ryie
lds
tre
ss
F
ac
to
rofs
afe
ty=
D
esig
norwork
in
gstr
ess

Note: Ultimate stress is used for materials e.g.

concrete which do not have a well-defined yield point,
or brittle materials which behave in a linear manner
up to failure. Yield stress is used for other materials
e.g. steel with well defined yield stress.
 Proof Stress

 High carbon steels, cast iron and most of the non-

ferrous alloys do not exhibit a well defined yield as is
the case with mild steel.
 For these materials, a limiting stress called proof
stress is specified, corresponding to a non-
proportional extension.
 The non-proportional extension is a specified
percentage of the original length e.g. 0.05, 0.10, 0.20
or 0.50%.
 Determination of Proof Stress

Stress
Proof Stress P

A Strain

The proof stress is obtained by drawing AP parallel to the initial

slope of the stress/strain graph, the distance, OA being the strain
corresponding to the required non-proportional extension e.g. for
0.05% proof stress, the strain is 0.0005.
1.9 Lateral Strain and Poisson’s Ratio

 Under the action of a longitudinal stress, a body will extend in the

direction of the stress and contract in the transverse or lateral
direction
 (see Fig. below).
 The reverse occurs under a compressive load.
 Stress Effects

P P

Longitudinal Tensile Stress Effect

P P

Longitudinal Compressive Stress Effect

Poisson’s Ratio

L
at
era
ls
t
rain
is
pro
po
rt
ion
alt
o t
helo
ng
it
udin
als
t
rain
,
w
it
h t
hec
on
st
anto
fp
ro
po
rt
ion
alit
y c
alle
d‘P
ois
so
n’s
rat
io’w
it
h s
ymb
ol,
.

Lat
era
lst
rai
n
M
a
th
ema
t
ica
lly
, 

D
i
rec
tor
long
it
udin
als
tr
ai
n

F
orm
os
tme
t
als
,t
her
ang
eofis
0.
28t
o 0
.
33.
1.10 Thermal Strain

M
os
tstru
ctu
ralm
ate
ria
lse
xpa
ndw
henh
eate
d,
ina
cco
rda
ncetoth
ela
w: T
w
hereislin
ears
tra
ina
nd
isth
eco
effic
ien
toflin
eare
xpa
nsio
n;
Tisth
eris
einte
mpe
ratu
re.
T
hatisfo
raro
dofL
eng
th,L
;
ifitste
mpe
ratu
rein
cre
ase
dbyt, th
eex
ten
sio
n,
l=LT
d .
 Thermal Strain Contd.

Asinthecaseof lateral strains, thermal strains

donot inducestressesunlesstheyareconstrained.
Thetotal straininabodyexperiencingthermal stress
maybedividedintotwocomponents:
Strainduetostress,  and

That duetotemperature, T .

Thus:  =  + T

= T
E
 1.11. Principle of Superposition

 It states that the effects of several actions taking

place simultaneously can be reproduced exactly by
adding the effect of each action separately.
 The principle is general and has wide applications
and holds true if:
 (i) The structure is elastic
 (ii) The stress-strain relationship is linear
 (iii) The deformations are small.
1.12 General Stress-Strain
Relationships
 1.12 General Stress-Strain
Relationships
F o r t h e e le m e n t o f m a t e r ia l a s in F ig u r e a b o v e
s u b je c t e d t o u n ia x ia l s t r e s s ,  x , t h e e n s u in g s t r a in
is a s s h o w n in ( b ) .

S t r a in in x d ir e c t io n ,  x  x
E
S t r a in s in y a n d z d ir e c t io n s a s a
r e s u lt o f s t r a in in x – d ir e c t io n

=   x and    x   x
each
E
N o t e : T h e n e g a t iv e s ig n in d ic a t e s c o n t r a c t io n .
General Stress-Strain Relationships
Contd.
F o r a n e le m e n t s u b je c t e d t o t r ia x ia l s t r e s s e s ,
 x,  y and  z , t h e t o t a l s t r a in in x d ir e c t io n w ill b e

d u e to  x a n d la t e r a l s t r a in s d u e t o  y and  z.
U s in g t h e p r in c ip le o f s u p e r p o s it io n , t h e r e s u lt a n t s t r a in in x - d ir e c t io n is :
  y 
 x  x
  z
E E E

1
i.e .  x  { x   ( y   z )}
E
1
 y  { y   ( x   z )} G e n e r a lis e d H o o k e ’s L a w in t h r e e d im e n s io n s
E
1
z  { z   ( x   y )}
E
General Stress-Strain Relationships
Contd.

Note: In the case of shear
strain, there is no lateral
strain, hence the shear
stress/shearstrain relationship
is the same for both uniaxial
and complex strain systems.
 Plain Stress and Plain Strain

A plain stress condition is said to exist when stress in

the z direction is zero.
 The above equations may be applied for but strain
in the z direction is not zero.
 Also plain strain condition exists when the strain in z
direction is zero.
 Using strain in Z direction as zero in this case does
not mean that stress in the z direction is zero.
 Strain Caused by Stress and
Temperature
In a d d it io n t o s t r a in c a u s e d b y s t r e s s , t h e r e m a y a ls o b e t h e r m a l s t r a in
d u e t o c h a n g e in t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e g e n e r a l f o r m o f t h e s t r e s s / s t r a in
r e la t io n s is :

1
 x  { x   ( y   z)}   t
E
1
 y  { y   ( x   z)}   t
E
1
 z  { z   ( x   y )}   t
E
 xy  yz 
 xy  ;  yz  ;  zx  zx

G G G
1.13 Relationship between Elastic
Modulus (E) and Bulk Modulus, K
I
tha
sb
ee
ns
ho
wn
th
at
: 
v
 x y z

1
x   x   ( y   z )
E
For hydrostatic stress,  x   y   z  

1 
i. e. x    2    1 2 
E E

Similarly ,  y and  z are each 1 2 
E
v   x   y  z  Volumetric strain
3
v  1 2 
E
3
E 1 2 
v
Volumetric or hydrostatic stress 
Bulk Modulus, K  
Volumetric strain v
E
i. e. E  3 K 1  2  and K
3 1 2 
 Maximum Value For Poisson’s
Ratio
F r o m t h e e q u a t io n , if v = 0 . 5 , t h e v a lu e o f K b e c o m e s in f in it e ly la r g e .
H e n c e t h e b o d y is in c o m p r e s s ib le . If v > 0 . 5 , K b e c o m e s n e g a t iv e
i. e . t h e b o d y w ill e x p a n d u n d e r h y d r o s t a t ic p r e s s u r e w h ic h is
in c o n c e iv a b le . It m a y b e c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e u p p e r lim it o f P o is s o n ’s r a t io
is 0 . 5 .
2 G 1 
N o te : K  and E  2 G 1 
3 1 2 
W h e r e : G is S h e a r M o d u lu s