CELL

STRUCTURE
AND
FUNCTION

Figure 1.1 The cell (a) EM ×16 500 (b) Schematic diagram; C adjacent cells ER endoplasmic reticulum F collagen fibrils G Golgi apparatus IS intercellular space L
lysosome M mitochondria N nucleus NE nuclear envelope PM plasma membrane V secretory vesicles

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 CELL
• Plasma membrane (=plasmalemma)
a dynamic interface
• Nucleus
largest organelle
nucleoplasm + NE (NM)
nucleolus
genetic material
• Cytoplasm
many organelles
most are membrane bound
in a fluid medium (=cytosol)
metabolic reactions in cytosol
• In cytosol
location of cytoskeleton – structural support / intracellular transport / cell
movement
 Cont’d
• Membrane bound compartments
specific physiological processes
isolation of incompatible processes

NB membranes also site of some enzymatic (biochemical) reactions

NB. In mature tissue the functionally specialised cells are called the parenchyma and
the less specialised supporting cells (tissues) called the stroma.
Membrane _+
structure

Figure 1.2 Membrane structure (a) EM ×210 000 (b) Phospholipid structure (c) Fluid mosaic model of membrane structure; G glycocalyx MV microvilli PM plasma
membrane

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• Cell membrane structure (fluid mosaic model)
• Lipid membrane
• Dynamic intreface with external environment
• A bilayer of phospholipids (PL’s).
• PL’s are amphipathic.
• Structure of PL:
• Head – polar, hydrophilic; made of – glycerol,
- phosphate bridge - ve charge,
- nitrogenous compound + ve charge,
(eg choline, ethanolamine,
serine).
• Tail – non-polar, hydrophobic.
- connects to glycerol of head by covalent bond.
- made of - long chain, straight, saturated fatty acids.
- long chain, ‘kinked’, unsaturated fatty acids.
• Also contains cholesterol. PL to cholesterol in 1:1 ratio.

• Unsaturated FA’s and cholesterol in middle of membrane (ie electron lucent layer)
prevent close packing of tails → fluid + flexible

• Cholesterol therefore regulates fluidity and stabilizes the PL bilayers.

• Various protein molecules (equal to ½ mass of membrane) are associated with the
membrane – intrinsic or integral proteins
(incorporated within membrane)

- extrinsic or peripheral protein

(held to inner or outer surface)

- transmembrane proteins (form ‘dynamic pores’)

(span entire thickness of membrane)
have hydrophobic centres
protruding parts are hydrophilic
• Some membrane proteins attached to cytoskeleton

• Lipid of membranes give mechanical properties.

• Proteins of membranes give dynamic function.

• On external surface of animal cells are glycoproteins and glycolipids, the

polysaccharide layer of which is called the glycocalyx (outer coating or ‘fuzzy coat’)
Functions of glycocalyx:
• - cell recognition
• - formation of intercellular adhesions
• - adsorption of molecules to cell surface
• - mechanical and chemical protection of cell membrane.

• In electron micrographs, the plasma membrane is trilaminar in appearance; seen

as 2 electron dense layers consisting of heads of PL’s, with an electron lucent layer
in between, made up of the tails of the PL’s.
Functions of membrane
• Membranes isolate incompatible processes.
• Membranes incorporate enzyme systems and are themselves sites of specific bio-
chemical reactions.
• Mediate flow of materials + information into and out of cell
• Attachment to neighbouring cells
 Nucleus

Figure 1.3 Nucleus (a) EM ×15 000 (b) H & E ×480 (c) Azan ×320 (d) Acridine orange ×320; E euchromatin ER endoplasmic reticulum H
heterochromatin M mitochondrion Nnc nerve cell nucleus Nsc support cell nucleus Nu nucleolus

a. Protein (antibody) secreting plasma cell

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 NUCLEUS
• Largest organelle
• Nucleoplasm + nuclear membrane or envelope
Nucleus
• Contains
DNA / some RNA
Nucleoproteins – histones – low molecular weight
- high concentration of +ve charged AA’s.
- non-histones – heterogenous group
includes enzymes for RNA and DNA synthesis

• Histones are for folding of DNA strands and for regulating DNA activity.

• All nucleoproteins are made in the cytoplasm and transported into the nucleus.

• Nuclear RNA consists of freshly made m, t, r RNA not yet exported out of nucleus.
• Nucleus, on EM, appears heterogenous, with electron dense and lucent areas.

• Chromatin of nucleus – heterochromatin – densely coiled

- no active RNA synthesis
(DNA
+ histone)
- along periphery of nucleus
- electron dense.
- euchromatin – loose and dispersed
- in active RNA synthesis
- electron lucent.

Chromatin = all the nuclear material

Nucleolus

Figure 1.4 The nucleolus EM ×37 000; E euchromatin ECS extracellular space ER endoplasmic reticulum F filamentous component of nucleolus G granular
component of nucleolus H heterochromatin M mitochondrion N nucleus NE nuclear envelope NP nuclear pore PM plasma membrane R ribosome

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• Nucleolus
• Site of synthesis of rRNA and assembly of ribosome.
• On micrographs – dark (filamentous component – F) areas are sites of DNA coding
for rRNA.
- pale (granular component –G) areas are sites of assembly
of ribosome.

• Note that the degree of activity of any cell can be judged by the ultrastructure of its
nucleus.

• The quiescent X-chromosome in females forms a discrete body – the Barr body –
sometimes seen at the edge of the nucleus.
• Nuclear envelope
• Encloses the nucleus
• Is a specialized part of the endoplasmic reticulum.

• On micrograph appears as:

• 2 electron dense layers, each of a standard phospholipid bilayer.
1 electron lucent area in between – the intermembranous (perinuclear) space –
which is continuous with that of the ER.

• Outer surface of envelope has ribosomes.

• On inner surface of envelope is an electron dense fibrillar layer – the nuclear
lamina.
made up of polypeptides called lamins
• The nuclear lamina – is linked to heterochromatin
- serves as attachment for the nuclear cytoskeleton.
Nuclear envelope

Figure 1.5 Nuclear envelope (a) EM ×59 000 (b) Freeze-etched preparation SEM ×34 000

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• Nuclear envelope
• Is a specialized part of the endoplasmic reticulum.

• On micrograph appears as:

• 2 electron dense layers, each consisting of a standard phospholipid bilayer.
1 electron lucent area in between – the intermembranous (perinuclear) space –
which is continuous with that of the ER.

• Outer surface of envelope has ribosomes.

• Inner surface of envelope is an electron dense fibrillar layer – the nuclear lamina.
• The nuclear lamina – is linked to heterochromatin
- serves as attachment for the nuclear cytoskeleton.
Nuclear pores
• Are formed where the 2 dense layers of the nuclear envelope adhere to each other.

• Has an electron dense structure called the nuclear pore complex, consisting of a
ring of protein with a central channel.

• Free diffusion of ions + small molecules

• Large molecules dock to the NPC before traversing by a process dependent on

energy ie an active process
Protein synthesis

Figure 1.6 Protein synthesis; DNA deoxyribonucleic acid I intron M mitochondrion mRNA messenger ribonucleic acid N nucleus NE nuclear envelope NPC nuclear pore
complex Nu nucleolus P polypeptide chain PR polyribosome R ribosome rER rough endoplasmic reticulum

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 Protein synthesis
• Major essential activity of all cells
• Continuous synthesis
• Protein synthesis a function of cellular activity

• Proteins
structural
enzymes
transport proteins
regulatory proteins

• ~ involves the nucleus + ribosomes

 Cont’d
• Steps in protein synthesis
Transcription – complementary copy of code → mRNA formation
the non-coding base sequences (introns) are removed
from mRNA before exiting nucleus
Ribosome binding
- ribosomes read the mRNA base sequences
Translation
- AA’s strung together in sequence specific for protein to be
synthesised

• Ribosomes
2 unequal subunits
each of a strand of rRNA + associated ribosomal proteins

• Ribosomes pass along strand of mRNA, reading the code and allowing tRNA to
bring specific AA’s into position → formation of PP chain
 Cont’d
• Polyribosomes or polysomes –
= single strand of mRNA + attached ribosomes

• Polyribosomes + ribosomes
attached to ER → rER

• rER ribosomes synthesise

export protein
lysosomal protein
integral membrane proteins

• Free (cytoplasmic) ribosomes synthesise

cytoplasmic proteins
nuclear proteins
mitochondrial proteins
Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Figure 1.7 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (a) EM ×23 000 (b) EM ×50 000 (c) Cresyl violet ×800

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• Endoplasmic reticulum
• rER synthesizes protein for – secretion (export)
lysosomes and
integral membrane proteins

• Protein synthesized on free ribosomes is used in the cytosol.

• rER is closely associated with outer lipid bilayer of the nuclear envelope and is
continuous with the latter

• Other rER functions:

tertiary folding of proteins
glycolsylation
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Figure 1.8 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum EM ×40 000; M mitochondria P peroxisome R ribosomes RB residual body rER rough endoplasmic reticulum sER
smooth endoplasmic reticulum

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Smooth endoplasmic reticulum and lipid synthesis
• Fatty acids and triglycerides are made in the cytosol.
• Cholesterol and phospholipids are made in the sER.
• sER is a part of the intracellular membrane system and is continuous with the
rER and the Golgi apparatus.
• Called sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells

• sER function
lipid synthesis eg hormone-secreting cells
intracellular transport
membrane synthesis / membrane repair
metabolism of glycogen and detoxification in liver cells
storage and release of calcium (in most cells, important for cell
signalling) in contractile cells.

• sER of liver has large amounts of cytochrome P450. and plays a major role
in the metabolism of
• Most cells have scattered sER elements except liver cells and cells specializing in
lipid synthesis eg. steroid hormone secreting cells of adrenals and gonads.

• Lipid is synthesized for - replacement of membrane

- energy store (cytoplasmic droplets)
- lipid transport (chylomicron)
- steroid hormones.
Golgi apparatus

Figure 1.9 Golgi apparatus (a) Schematic diagram (b) EM ×30 000 (c) H & E ×300 (d) Immunoperoxidase ×100 (e) Iron haematoxylin ×400; C
Golgi cisternae D central duct G Golgi apparatus N nucleus NM nuclear membrane P plasma cell rER rough endoplasmic reticulum T transfer vesicles V vesicles

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Golgi
• Golgi apparatus located close to nucleus.
• On EM seen as stacked saucer-shaped cisternae with a concave surface facing the
nucleus.
• Indicates functional state of the cell.

Functions
• Packages material for exocytosis
• Formation of lysosomes (endocytosis)
• Synthesis of glycoproteins and glycolipids
• Recycles excess plasma membrane
• Repairs membrane
• Elaborates membrane (for growth).
 cont’d
• Protein synthesised in rER
• Transported in coated vesicles to

• Convex, forming face or cis Golgi network

coat protein complex II (COP II)
coat protein disengages + vesicles fuse
sugar molecules added + proteins packaged
• Proteins traverse cisternae in coated vesicles
coat protein complex l (COP l)

• At concave, maturing face or trans Golgi network

proteins packed into secretory vesicles
• Secretory vesicles condensed → mature secretory granules
• Membrane proteins (SNARE’s) control docking + fusion of vesicles to membrane
• Exocytosis
Golgi
apparatus

Figure 1.9 Golgi apparatus (a) Schematic diagram (b) EM ×30 000 (c) H & E ×300 (d) Immunoperoxidase ×100 (e) Iron haematoxylin ×400; C
Golgi cisternae D central duct G Golgi apparatus N nucleus NM nuclear membrane P plasma cell rER rough endoplasmic reticulum T transfer vesicles V vesicles

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 Import, export and intracellular transportation
• Cellular transportation closely linked to the crossing of lipid membranes
• Lipid membranes
control cell interaction with environment
separate biochemical processes one from the other
allow passage of cross-membrane information (eg transient
depolarisation)
• Cargo (bulk) transport mechanisms also serve to transport signalling molecules into
the cell ie information transfer.

• Transport mechanisms
Passive diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Active transport
Bulk transport
Transmembrane signalling
Chemical interactions of neurotransmitters
 Passive Diffusion
• Concentration gradient driven

• Lipids / lipid-soluble molecules / gases pass freely

• Cell membrane impermeable to hydrophilic molecules

• But, hydrophilic regions of cell membrane allow passage of

small molecules (urea, water)
inorganic ions
lipid-soluble hormones (sex hormones),
along osmotic + electrochemical gradients
 Facilitated Diffusion
• Concentration gradient driven

• Passive process

• Faster than passive diffusion

• Main mechanism for transport of hydrophilic molecules

H2O ions glucose AA’s

• Facilitated by protein carrier molecules (= pores or channels)

eg aquaporins

• Some pores are gated

 Active Transport
• Energy dependent

• Works against concentration gradients

• Na+ pump = a transmembrane protein complex (Na+-K+ ATPase)

 Bulk Transport
• For large molecules + small particles

• NB transport structures called coated vesicles

• Coated vesicles transport
molecules bound to cell membrane
vesicle bond soluble cargo

• Result of: fluidity +

deformatibility of membrane
mobility of intrinsic membrane proteins

• Coat proteins cause budding of membrane to form coated vesicles

• CV transported across cytoplasm by cytosleleton to target destination

• Examples: endo- + exo- cytosis, intracellular transport vesicles (from Golgi)
 Exocytosis
Pancreatic protein-secreting cell

Figure 1.10 Exocytosis (a) EM ×14 000 (b) EM ×41 500; B bacterium CL clathrin CP coated pit CV coated vesicle G Golgi apparatus JC junctional complex L
gland lumen Li ligand M mitochondrion MV microvilli MVB multivesicular body N nucleus Nu nucleolus P phagosome PL phagolysosome R receptor RB residual body RE
recycling endosome rER rough endoplasmic reticulum SE sorting endosome SG secretory granules

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• Secretory granules dock at membrane

• Discharge products thru transient openings (porosomes) in membrane

• Empty secretory vesicle recycled

Types of exocytosis
• continuous (= constitutive secretion)
• Signal dependent (intermittent) (= regulated secretion)
Exocytosis cont’d

Figure 1.10 Exocytosis (a) EM ×14 000 (b) EM ×41 500; B bacterium CL clathrin CP coated pit CV coated vesicle G Golgi apparatus JC junctional complex L
gland lumen Li ligand M mitochondrion MV microvilli MVB multivesicular body N nucleus Nu nucleolus P phagosome PL phagolysosome R receptor RB residual body RE
recycling endosome rER rough endoplasmic reticulum SE sorting endosome SG secretory granules

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 Endocytosis
• The uptake of particulate matter + large macromolecules

• Types
receptor-mediated endocytosis
phagocytosis
pinocytosis + macropinocytosis
non-specific sampling of extracellular fluid

• Vesicles moved around cell by actin microfilaments + microtubules

Note. Some viruses (eg poliovirus) use receptor-mediated endocytosis to their

advantage to enter the cell.
Endocytosis

Figure 1.11 Endocytosis

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 Receptor-mediated endocytosis
• Ligand (eg LDL) binds to LDL receptor

• Receptor binds to coat protein (clathrin) in coated pit; an invagination of cell

membrane
coat protein = an intrinsic membrane protein
• Coated vesicle forms by process of budding

• Loss of clathrin coat + fusion with sorting endosome

• receptor-ligand dissociation (promoted by low pH)

• Recycling of membrane with receptors (recycling endosome)

• → late endosome (= multivesicular body)

• MVB + lysosome = phagolysosome

• Lipid digested + cholesterol freed for membrane synthesis
Phagocytosis

Figure 1.12 Phagocytosis (a) EM ×11 750 (b) EM ×14 000

a. Neutrophil
b. Macrophage
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Lysosomes

Figure 1.13 Lysosomes (a) EM ×27 000 (b) EM ×60 000 (c) Histochemical method for acid phosphatase: EM ×50 000; B bacteria ER endoplasmic
reticulum L and Ly1 lysosomes Ly2 secondary or phagolysosomes M mitochondrion MB multivesicular body N nucleus NE nuclear envelope Pp pseudopodia Ps
phagosome rER rough endoplasmic reticulum

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• Lysosomes
• Primary lysosomes – membrane containing amorphous granular material.

• Secondary (phagolysosomes) lysosomes – membrane with diverse particulate

content (some very electron dense) and amorphous granular material.

• Lysosomal enzymes are acidic (acid hydrolases)

• Note that acid phosphatase is a lysosomol enzyme.

• Lysosomes – roles
endocytosis
phagocytosis
autophagy – digestion + degradation of aged cellular organelles
Peroxisomes

Figure 1.14 Peroxisomes EM ×40 000

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Cellular pigments: lipofuscin and melanin

Figure 1.15 Cellular pigments: lipofuscin and melanin (a) H & E ×320 (b) Modified Azan ×600; M mitochondrion N nucleus P peroxisome

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 Energy production and storage:

Mitochondria

Figure 1.16 Mitochondria

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 Mitochondria
• Considerable variation in size and shape.
• Elongated cigar-shape usually.
• Are freely motile.
• Localized at sites of maximum energy requirement.

• Have smooth outer membrane and a convoluted inner membrane system of cristae
in an amorphous matrix.
• Inner membrane of mitochondria projects into cavity (filled with amorphous matrix)
as cristae.
• Matrix granules – site of storage of calcium

• Matrix contains enzymes for oxidation of lipids and for Kreb’s cycle.
• Inner membrane contains the cytochromes (electron carrier molecules) and
enzymes for ATP production.
• Cellular respiration:
• Substrates = glucose + fatty acids (FA’s)

• Fatty acids undergo lipolysis, in mitochondria → carbon dioxide and water with
production of lots of ATP.

• Glucose undergoes glycolysis (in the cytosol) to pyruvic acid → production of small
amounts of ATP.
Pyruvic acid → mitochondria ( with oxygen) → carbon dioxide and water with
production of lots of ATP.
• Mitochondrial respiration = aerobic respiration.
• Glycolysis without oxygen = anaerobic respiration.

• ATP molecules are stored.

• Excess glucose and fats are stored as glycogen and triglycerides.

• Extreme examples of storage and non-storage are nerve cells (no storage) and fat
cells.
 Unusual features of mitochondria

• DNA strands in matrix – similar to bacterial chromosomes

• Contains ribosomes – similar to bacterial ribosomes

• Synthesise some of own constituent protein

• Self replication

Postulate:
Mitochondria derived from bacteria forming an evolutionary symbiotic relationship with
eukaryotic cells
Mitochondria

Figure 1.17 Mitochondria (a) EM ×34 000 (b) EM ×25 000 (c) Histochemical method for cytochrome oxidase: EM ×50 000; F actin and myosin filaments
G matrix granules GR glycogen rosettes L lumen M mitochondrion N nucleus PM plasma membrane RP reaction product S striations

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Mitochondria

Salivary gland Skeletal muscle

Figure 1.18 Mitochondria (a) Iron haematoxylin ×480 (b) Succinate dehydrogenase ×480 (c) EM ×13 000

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Mitochondria

Figure 1.18 Mitochondria (a) Iron haematoxylin ×480 (b) Succinate dehydrogenase ×480 (c) EM ×13 000

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Glycogen

Figure 1.19 Glycogen (a) EM ×47 000 (b) PAS/haematoxylin ×600

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Lipid biosynthesis:

Lipid

Figure 1.20 Lipid (a) H & E ×320 (b) Osmium ×320 (c) EM ×24 000; B blood channels G Golgi apparatus GR glycogen rosette L lipid droplets M
mitochondrion N nucleus P peroxisome PM plasma membrane rER rough endoplasmic reticulum S secretory granules M mitochondrion MF microfilaments N nucleus R
ribosomes

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Lipid

Figure 1.20 Lipid (a) H & E ×320 (b) Osmium ×320 (c) EM ×24 000; B blood channels G Golgi apparatus GR glycogen rosette L lipid droplets M
mitochondrion N nucleus P peroxisome PM plasma membrane rER rough endoplasmic reticulum S secretory granules M mitochondrion MF microfilaments N nucleus R
ribosomes

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 The Cytoskeleton and Cell Movement

Cytoskeleton

Figure 1.21 Cytoskeleton Silver impregnation method ×600

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• Cytoskeleton and cell movement
• Cytoskeleton – a system of microfilaments + microtubules which form a supporting
framework and maintains cell structure stability.

• The organizing centre for cytoskeleton is the centrosome (= diplosome), situated at

cell center, near to the nucleus and consisting of 2 centrioles,at right angles. each
centriole = 9 triplets of tubules forming a cylinder.

• At the base of the microtubules of cilia is a pair of centrioles called a basal body.

• Centrioles = microtubule organising centre

microtubules radiate from centrioles in star-like manner (aster)
Functions of cytoskeleton
1. structural support for plasma memebrane, organelles and some cytosol enzyme
systems.
2. movement of organelles, plasma membrane and other cytosol constituents.
3. locomotion – amoeboid and cilia et flagella.
4. contractility in special cells eg muscle.
• Skeletal elements
• - Microfilaments
• - Microtubules
• - Intermediate filaments
• - Accessory proteins
Microfilaments

Figure 1.22 Microfilaments EM ×76 500

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• Microfilaments
• d = 5 nm.
• Are minute strands of the protein – actin.
• Actin - made of 2 strings of globular protein sub-units twisted together.
• - stabilized by Ca 2+ and associated with ATP.
• Labile.
• Best seen in skeletal muscle where it is associated with the protein myosin.

Functions
• Muscle contraction
• Structural support for cell – cell cortex
• Role in cell movement
• Pinocytosis + phagocytosis
• In other cells, filaments of globular sub-types of actin are found (G-actin)
G-actin → F-actin (ie microfilaments)

• Deep to plasma membrane

actin + transmembrane proteins + linking proteins (filamin) → supporting network
– the cell cortex
prevents deformation
but flexible for changes in morphology.
Intermediate filaments and microtubules

Figure 1.23 Intermediate filaments and microtubules (a) EM: TS ×53 000 (b) EM: LS ×40 000; C centriole F filament G Golgi apparatus IF intermediate
filament MT microtubule N nucleus NF neurofilament S Schwann cell sER smooth endoplasmic reticulum T triplet

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Intermediate filaments
• 10 – 12 nm = d.
• Stable fibrous structure of a variety of irregular molecular strands, specific to the
cell type.

Examples
• epithelial cells – made of the protein cytokeratin and are known as tonofibrils.
• mesodermal cells – vimentin.
• muscle cells – desmin.
• nerve cells – neurofilament protein.
• nucleus (inner side of nuclear membrane) - lamin
• Microtubules
• D = 25 nm.
• Labile, globular protein sub-units.
• Sub-units of 2 types – alpha and beta tubulin.
• 13 tubulin molecules make up a hollow tube.

• Grow out from a specialized microtubule organizing center called the centrosome
(cell center), consisting of 2 centrioles.
• Microtubule-associated proteins (MAP) stabilize the tubules and include capping
proteins which stabilize the growing ends.

• 2 motor proteins – dynein and kinesin become attached to organelles and move
along tubules, resulting in movement (eg mitotic spindle).
dynein – for movement towards the centrosome
kinesin – for movement away from the centrosome
• Cilia have 9 pairs of tubules making a cylinder.
Centrosome

Figure 1.24 Centrosome (a) EM ×9200 (b) EM ×48 000 (c) Schematic diagram

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Centrosome

Figure 1.24 Centrosome (a) EM ×9200 (b) EM ×48 000 (c) Schematic diagram

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Centrosome and microtubules

Figure 1.25 Centrosome and microtubules EM ×30 000; C centriole G Golgi complex M mitochondrion MT microtubules N nucleus rER rough endoplasmic
reticulum

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Functions of cellular
organelles

Figure 1.26 Summary of functions of cellular organelles

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 Plasma membrane
• Plasma membrane proteins called integrins linked to cytoskeleton and extracellular
matrix
• Plasma membrane made of phospholipids
cholesterol
proteins
oligosaccharide (carbohydrate / sugar chains) linked to
phospholipids and proteins = Glycocalyx = ‘fuzzy’
outer surface of plasma membrane
• Bilayer is most stable configuration
• Each ½ of bilayer has different lipid composition
• Integral proteins span the membrane once = one-pass transmembrane proteins
or
more than once = multipass transmembrane proteins
• Lipid rafts – patches of membrane with more cholesterol where the integral+
peripherial proteins are part of enzyme complexes.
ENDOCYTOSIS
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
• Many membrane receptors are integral membrane proteins
• Receptor-ligand binding leads to many receptors to aggregate in a part of the
membrane called a coated pit.
• Clathrin is a inner membrane protein / polypeptide + aids formation of coated
vesicle.
 Signal reception + transduction
• Some Signals pass directly from cell to cell via gap junctions
• Soluble extracellular signal molecules bind specific receptors on specific target cells
Types of such extracellular signaling
• Endocrine signaling
• Paracrine signaling
signal rapidly metabolised to give very localized action
• Synaptic signaling
a type of paracrine
• Autocrine signaling
signals act on same cell type producing the signal molecule
• Juxtacrine signaling
in early embryonic tissue interactions
signals remain on cell membrane and bind receptors of target cells when the two
make direct physical contact.
 mitochondria
• Show plasticity
• Change shape rapidly
• Fuse + divide
• Transported in cell along microtubules
• Pyruvate into mitochondria to H2O + CO2 + energy
• Mitochondrial membrane has greater protein content + so less fluidity
• Outer membrane – abundant pores (=transmembrane proteins = porins)
easy passage of small molecules
• Inner membrane highly permeale to ions
selective permeability to small molecules (pass into matrix)
Has protein complexes (short matchsticks) containing ATP synthase
• In matrix –small circular chromosome of DNA + ribosomes + mRNA + tRNA
• Mitosis – each daughter cell gets ½ mitochondria of parent cell
• Metabolically active cells have more mitochondria
• Metabolically active cells / mitochondria have more cristae
• H+E – mitochondria are eosinophilic