W Business

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12/10/2023 Alemayehu M 1
 Today’s Agenda
2

Introduction — who we are?

Introduction — this course

Course overview

Chapter 1 – Overview of Business Communication

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 Course Instructor
3

Alemayehu Mulugeta (MBA, MPH)

 Lecturer @ AAU, school of Commerce, BAIS
Program Unit
 Address
E-mail: [email protected]
Office #: 106

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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 Who are you?
4

 Name?
 Area of specialization
 Where you work? At what position?
 Any prior research experience, if any?
 Anything else you want to share with us?

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 This course
5

 Class Duration : May 2022 to

 Very intensive 2 hours a day, 1 day per week)
 Multiple “learning vehicles” (lecture, class
discussions, assignments (writing a proposal) and
other in-class exercises)

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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 Objective of the course
6
After this course, you will be able to:
 Explain the importance of communication.
 Identify the barriers that affect the communication process.
 Identify the techniques that should be followed at each step in
the communication process.
 Write concise and well-organized memos, reports and letters.
 Explain the process of conducting a meeting.

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 This course: Coverage
7
1. Communication: An overview
 Definition, objective, type, process
2. Barriers to Effective Managerial Communication
3. Types of Communication in Organizations
 Vertical, horizontal and diagonal
4. Principles of communication (7C’s)
5. Written Communication methods and skills
 Letter, memo, report
6. Oral Communication methods and skills
 Presentation, meeting, interview
7. Non-verbal Communication
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 Course Materials
8
 Adler, R. B., Rosenfeld, L. B., and Towne, N., Interplay: The Process of Interpersonal Communication. New York;
Harcourt Brace, 1996.
 Berger, C. R. and Chaffee, S. H. (1988). Bridging the Communication Gap. Human Communication Research, 15.2,
pp. 311-318.
 Bittner, J. R., Mass Communication. Boston; Allyn and Bacon, 1996.
 Burgoon, M., Hunsaker, F. G., and Dawson, E. J., Human Communication, Thousand Oaks, CA; Sage, 1994.
 Cheryl Hamilton and Cordell Parker, Communicating for results: a guide for business and the professions. 2nd
edition, Wadsworth Publishing Company, California, 1987.
 Courtland L. Bovee and Johan V. Thiland, Business Communication today”, 3rd edition. McGrew Hill, New York,
1992.
 Gashaye Belew, Applied Business Communication Skills, Mega Publishing Enterprise, Addis Ababa, 1998.
 Herta A. Murphy and Herbert W. Hildebrandt. Effective Business Communications, 6th edition, McGrew Hill, New
York, 1998.L. L. Barker and Barker, D. L.1993, Communication. Prentice Hall.
 Kitty O. Locker, Business and Administrative Communication. 5th edition, McGraw Hill Inc, Boston, 2000Raymond
V. Lesikar,. Business Communications. 5th edition, Richard D. Irwin. Inc, Boston, 1991.
 R. B. Adler and Rodman, G., Understanding Human Communication, Chicago; Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1991.
 Ranjit Kumar, Research Methodology. Addison Wesley Longman Australia Pty Limited, 1996.
 R. T. Craig, Communication Theory as a Field, 1999.
 Scot Ober, Contemporary Business Communication. 3rd edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, New12/10/2023
work, 2000.
Instructor: Alemayehu M
 Rules & Expectations
9

- Attendance ！
- Participation ！
- Academic integrity ！
- Team work !
- Feedback !

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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 Evaluation
10

 Exams & Assignments (tentative)

-Test/quiz ………………………….……………
15%
-Mid exam ……………………….……………. 20%
-Assignment …..………………..…………… 15%
-Final exam ………………………………….…
50%

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11

Questions?
before we go to the chapters?

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12

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13

 Your understanding first!

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 Chapter Learning objectives
14
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
 Define managerial communication and explain its
characteristics
 Explain the importance of Managerial communication
 Differentiate the role of the sender and the receiver in the
communication process
 Describe the various obstacles for effective communication in
the work place and apply different mechanisms by which you
can overcome these barriers

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 Business communication defined
15

 What is
• Communication?
• Business communication?

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16
• Communication is the process of “transferring information (idea, thought)
from one person to another person with the information being understood”.
• Communication occurs when an exchange of messages result in shared
meaning.
• Communication is a two way process of exchanging ideas or information
between human beings.
• Communication is the process of exchanging of facts, ideas and opinions and a
means that individuals or organizations use for sharing meaning and
understanding with one another

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 Definition…..
17

• Root of communication is The Latin word

“communis”, which means “to make common to many,
share”.
• The core concept in communication is therefore,
understanding.

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 Question
18

 What should be fulfilled for communication to

take place?

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 Elements of communication process
19

 Sender or transmitter
 Message/information to be shared
 Receiver to whom the information is intended
 The receiver partly or wholly understands the message
passed on to her/him.
 Feedback.

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 Communication ……….
20
 Communication is:
 unavoidable
 Pervasive
 Irreversible
 a two way process

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 1.2. Characteristics/nature of communication
21
 Communication takes place on a continuous basis.
 Mutual influence
 Intentionality
 Meanings are not transferable
 Communication takes place using Symbols (verbal vs
nonverbal)

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 1.3. Importance of Communication
22

 What are the importance of Communication?

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 Importance of Communication
23
Some points to understand its importance…..
• Managers spend 75 to 80 % of their time engaged in communication
• Inability to communicate makes it nearly impossible for managers to
compete effectively in the workplace, and stands in the way of career
progression.
• Getting message across is paramount to progressing.

• Communication in a business organization provides the critical link

between core functions.
• Life blood of an organization

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 We communicate to:
24  Share our ideas and opinions
 Transfer knowledge
 Mental development
 Make decision
 Provide feedback to others
 Get information from others
 To know ourselves and others
 Get help from others
 Provide help to others
 Gain power and influence
 Develop social relationships
 Maintain self-expression Etc.
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 Specific Importance of communication includes: [1]
25
 It enables smooth functioning of the enterprise
 It encourages proper planning and coordination
 It maximizes productivity with the minimum cost
 It helps to build morale and democratic management
 It helps organizations achieve their go als
• It helps to overcome business competition
• It helps to meet personal responsibilities
• Helps mangers set clear goals and objectives
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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 Importance of communication (Cont’d…) [2]
26
• Enable managers make and implement decisions
• Facilitate measurement of results or achievements
• Facilitate hiring and developing employees
• Helps to maintain effective and peaceful organizational
environment
• to successfully deal with customers.
• Helps to negotiate with stakeholders
• It helps businesses growth
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 Objectives of organizational communication
27
1. Setting goals and objectives
2. Making and implementing decisions
3. Measuring results
4. Hiring and developing staff
5. Effective and peaceful organizational environment
6. Dealing with customers
7. Negotiating
8. Producing the product

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 Communication in the workplace: Model
28

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 Levels of managerial Communication
29
1. Intrapersonal communication: is the first level of communication. It
focuses on internal behavior such as observing, listening, reading,
speaking, and writing.
2. Interpersonal level of communication: At this level, two or more
people exchange thoughts.
3. Group communication. Example: meetings, which may be either
formal or informal.
4. Organizational level of communication: operates within the
networks that link organizational members. For instance,
weekly/monthly newsletter that is distributed to all employees.
5. Intercultural level of communication: concerns interactions among
people of different cultures.
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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 Level of communication
30

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31

Context
5.5.
Stimulus
Feedback
Feedbacktravels
travels Stimulus
to
tosender
sender

1.1.
4.
4.
2.2.
Sender
Sender 3.3. Receiver
Receiver
Sender
Sender
has
hasidea
idea encodes
Message
Message decodes
decodes
encodes travels
idea travelsover
over message
message
ideainto
into channel
channel into
message
message intoidea
idea
6.6.
Possible
Possibleadditional
additionalfeedback
feedback
to
toreceiver
receiver
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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 Communication Process
11 88 77
Sender
Sender Audience
Audience Audience
Audience
Has
Has an
an Idea
Idea Sends
Sends Feedback
Feedback Reacts
Reacts to
to Message
Message

22 66
Sender
Sender Audience
Audience
Encodes
Encodes the
the Idea
Idea Decodes
Decodes Message
Message

33 44 55
Sender
Sender Sender
Sender Audience
Audience
Produces
Produces Message
Message Transmits
Transmits Message
Message Receives
Receives Message
Message
 1. Sender
33

 The sender is a person who initiates the

communication process and transmits messages.
 Two things are needed from the sender:
 Stimulus (internal or external)
 Motivation

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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 2. Encoding
34

 Encoding is the process of choosing symbols (verbal

and non-verbal) that can best represent the sender’s
ideas, thoughts, feelings or pieces of information.
 By the encoding process, ideas, thoughts and feelings
become a message

 The message is the information or core idea being

transmitted

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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 3. Message
35

 It is the ‘physical form’ of the thoughts or ideas which

can be experienced and understood by one or more
senses of the receiver.
 It could be in the form of hearing, reading or other
physical gestures.

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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 Group Discussion
36

 What are the major problems of

developing a good message?

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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 Problems in developing a message
37 1. Indecision about Content
2. Lack of familiarity with the situation or the receiverSome
of the things you should be clear about before writing the
report are:
 What is the scope/coverage of the report?
 How long should the report be?
 Where can you get the information?
 Who is going to read the report?
 Should it provide conclusions and recommendations or simply
facts and figures?
3. Lack of familiarity with your audience
4. Emotional conflicts
5. Difficulty of expressing ideas
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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 4. Channel
38
 It is the vehicle or method used for the transmission of the message. It is a
medium/carrier that bridges the gap between the sender and the receiver
 Examples: face to face conversations, telephone, letter, social medias, e-mail, ….
 Factors to consider in choosing a channel
 The importance of the message
 The needs and abilities of the receiver
 How much and how soon feedback is needed
 Whether a permanent record is needed
 The cost of the channel
 Whether formality or informality is desired

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 Communication Channels ……….
39

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40
5. Receiver
 The receiver is the individual to whom the message is
directed; also known as ‘decoder
 physical reception is only the first step.
 Does the communication process complete once the receiver has
the physical message?
 Still there are two important elements remaining for the
process to be completed: understanding the message
(decoding) and responding to the sender (sending a
feedback).
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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 7. Decoding
41

 Decoding is a process of translating a message received in a

way that is intended by the sender.
 Decoding is done in the same manner as encoding by motor
skills, muscle system or sensory skills.

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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 7. Feedback
42

 Feedback is a key element in the communication

process because it enables the sender to evaluate the
effectiveness of the message

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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 Feedback ………..
43

 It is the response of a receiver to sender’s message

 Used to evaluate the effectiveness of your message
 It helps in maintaining an open communication climate

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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 Characteristics of a good Feedback
44

 feedback should:
 Focus on a particular behaviour - be specific rather than being general.
 Impersonal - be job related, do not criticize anyone personally.
 Goal oriented - If we have something negative to say about the person, we should
always direct it to the recipients goal.
 Well timed - a short gap between the recipients behaviour and the receipt of that
feedback.
 Use “I” statements – I observed, not others informed me
 Ensure understanding - make sure that the recipients understand the feedback
properly. 12/10/2023
Instructor: Alemayehu M
 Feedback….
45
Advantage of feedback
1. It increases the accuracy of employee understanding and
performance
2. It increases employee satisfaction with the job
Disadvantage of feedback
3. It causes people to feel psychologically under attack
4. It is time consuming
5. It is difficult to elicit

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Instructor: Alemayehu M
46
 Analysis of the communication process brings out three
underlying truths:
1. Meanings sent are not always received (there is a 40 % loss)
2. Meanings is in the mind
3. The symbols of communication are imperfect
 For example:
 The word cat stands for any one of countless animals that vary sharply in
size, shape, color, and every other visible aspect.
 The word run conveys only the most general part of an action; it ignores
countless variations in speed, grace, and style.
 Words can not account for the infinite variations of reality.
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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 Mini Case Analysis
47

 Assume that Dr.Endale is the Head of R and D Unit of a

bank and Ato Semu is an senior expert in the bank. The
following communication took place between them. Read
the incidents in the communication process and write the
elements of communication.

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 CONT’D …….
48
 Dr. Endale received a memo from Ato Semu requesting
information about the research budget
 Dr. Endale decided to reply to the information from Semu
 Dr. Endale decided to use letter to share the information with
Ato Semu.
 Ato Semu received the letter from Dr. Endale via the
messenger
 Ato Semu read the letter and gave Dr. Endale his reaction by a
telephone call

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Instructor: Alemayehu M
49

Barriers to Communication

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50
Environment

Sender Receiver
Idea Channel Idea
Decode

Encode

Feedback

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 Class Activity
1

 Identify the barriers to communication in

your organization.
 What do you recommend as a solution?
 General Communication barriers
52
1. Choice of Inappropriate Channel
2. Physical barriers (destruction, time and distance)
3. Verbal /Semantic barrier
 Inadequate Knowledge or Vocabulary
 Difference in Interpretations
 Bypassed instructions
4. Difference in the perception of reality

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 Communication barriers
53
5. Attitudes and Opinions
 Inappropriate Emotions
 Favorable or Unfavorable information
 Incorrect set of facts
 Closed mindedness
 Status consciousness
 Sender credibility

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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 CONT’D…..
54

6. Information overload
7. Cultural barriers
8. Fear
9. Snap reactions
10. Assumptions
11. Degree of motivation
12. Background differences
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 Discussion Question
55

 Which of the above barriers to communication

are attributable to managers or subordinates?

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 Communication barriers attributed to managers
56
 The following are barriers to effective communication
that are caused by the managers.
1. The supervisor’s wrong attitude and behavior in listening
2. Judgment on preconceived ideas, “no news is good news”
3. Self defense regarding oneself and actions
4. Superiors often resist becoming involved with the
personal problems of their subordinates
5. Many executives feel that they are too involved with daily
problems and responsibilities
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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 Obstacles to effective communication attributed to
57 subordinates

1. Lack of freedom to interfere upon his superior’s time

because most mangers follow a closed-door policy.
2. Neither the facilities available nor the rewards offered
to the subordinates for upward communication is not
equal to those messages flowing downward.
3. Poorly expressed messages
4. Fear of misinterpretation
5. Fear of distortion
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 C. Special problems of business communication
58

 What makes communication in business unique? What

are the problems in business communication?

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 Problems….
59
 Some of the barriers/problems encountered in business are:
1. Complexity of message
 the complexity of message relates to conflicts about the content,
the dry or difficult nature of the subject and the difficult
conditions one is working under.

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 Problems….
60
2. Difficult conditions for transmission and reception
 transmission and reception of messages may be hindered by numerous
layers of message processors and interruptions from other message
senders.

3. Differences between sender and receiver

 In business, you often communicate with an unknown
and unseen audience

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61

 What shall we do to improve Business

Communication?

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 Solutions to the problems
62
1. Creating the message carefully
 To achieve this, you have to take the following actions:
 Know your purpose and your audience
 Tell the audience what to expect
 Use concrete and specific language
 Stick to the point
 Connect new information to existing ideas
 Emphasize and review key points

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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 Solutions to ….
63
2. Minimize noise
 To the extent possible, you should try to eliminate potential
sources of interference.
 The careful choice of channel and medium helps focus the
receiver’s attention on your message.
3. Facilitate feedback
 Make feedback more useful by:
 planning when and how to accept it
 being receptive to other’s response
 encourage frankness and
 use it to improve communication
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64

Types of Business Communication

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65

1. Verbal Vs Non verbal Communication

• Verbal communication is the written or

oral use of words to communicate.

• Compare and contrast the two?

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 Written Vs Oral Communication
66

•An oral communication •A written communication

is appropriate when: is appropriate when:
1. You want 1. You do not need
immediate feedback immediate feedback
from the audience.
2. Your message is 2. You have a detailed
relatively simple and and complex message
easy to accept. that requires careful
planning.
 Written Vs Oral Communication cont’d
67
3. You do not need a 3. You need a permanent,
permanent record verifiable record.
4. You can assemble 4. You try to reach an
the audience audience that is large
conveniently and and geographically
economically dispersed
5. You want to 5. You want to minimize
encourage the chances for
interaction to solve a distortion that occur
problem or reach a when a message is
decision. passed orally from
person to person.
 Activity
68
What is Non-Verbal communication?
Identify the types of non-verbal
communication?
How it is useful in banking operation?

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69
Non- Verbal Communication
IT IS CONDUCTED VIA:
 Facial expressions and eye behavior
 Gestures and postures
 Vocal character­istics
 Personal appearance
 Touching behavior, and
 Use of time and space.

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 Non-verbal Communication
70
 Facial expressions: happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust
 Body movements and posture: the way people sit, walk, stand up, or hold
their head. This type of non-verbal communication includes posture, bearing,
stance, and subtle movements.
 Gestures: We wave, point, plead, and often use our hands when we are
arguing or speaking in an animated way. However, the meaning of gestures
can be very different across cultures and regions, so it’s important to be
careful to avoid misinterpretation.
 Eye contact: The way we look at someone can communicate many things,
including interest, affection, hostility, or attraction. Eye contact is also
important in maintaining the flow of conversation and for assessing another
person’s response.

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Instructor: Alemayehu M
 Non-verbal Communication
71  Touch: Think about the messages given by the following: a firm handshake,
a timid tap on the shoulder, a warm bear hug, a reassuring pat on the back,
a patronizing pat on the head, or a controlling grip on your arm.
 Space: communicates many different non-verbal messages, including
signals of intimacy, aggression, dominance, or affection.
 Voice: our voices communicate even when we are not using words. Non-
verbal speech sounds such as tone, pitch, volume, inflection, rhythm, and
rate are important communication elements. When we speak, other people
“read” our voices in addition to listening to our words. These non-verbal
speech sounds provide subtle but powerful clues into our true feelings and
what we really mean, for example, can indicate sarcasm, anger, affection, or
confidence

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 Type of Communication based on the
Network/directions
72
Types of Communication

Internal External

Formal Informal Informal

Formal
Vertical Grapevine
Horizontal
Lateral

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 1. Formal Communication
73
Formal communication
• Uses the Official structure
• Satisfies the information needs of the organization
• Integrates (links) the parts of the organization
• Took place up, down, across formal power lines
• Helps coordination and control
• Restricts unwanted flow of information

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 Formal Communication: Limitations
74

• Expensive: Slow and time consuming

• It increases the workload of the line supervisor
• Information may get distorted
• Creates gaps between top executives and lower
subordinates

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 Downward and Upward Communication
75

1. Downward Communication
• Job procedures/instructions- directions about what to do or
how to do the things.
• Job rationale- Explanation of purpose of doing a task in a
certain way.
• Policies and practices - Information about rules, regulations,
policies, and practices to be followed.
• Feedback /motivation - Telling the subordinates about their
performance and. motivating them

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 2. Upward Communication
76
Messages flowing from subordinates
• It helps top management in knowing about the attitudes,
behavior, opinions, activities and feelings of the’ workers
on the job.
• On the basis of such knowledge and information, the
management may improve its behavior, introduce
motivational plans and improve its controlling function.
• Subordinates get an outlet for their grievances,
suggestions, and opinions, etc.

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77
Upward Communication Limitations

• Employees find it difficult to participate in it.

• Being frank with superiors can be risky, especially
when the news is not what the boss wants to hear.
• Busy superiors may be too occupied to pay
attention to employees.

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 Activity Question
78

How can you improve the effectiveness of:

 Upward communication
 Downward communication
 Who is responsible in improving the effectiveness of
communication?

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 Responsibility for Improving Upward Communication
79
• Most of the responsibility for improving upward
communication rests with managers.
• They can begin the process by announcing their willingness to
hear from, subordinates.
• The management may use an open door policy, grievance
procedures, periodic inter-views, group meetings and the
suggestions book, etc.

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 2. Informal Communication
80
• Unofficial lines of power
• Known as the grapevine
Features:
• Oral, undocumented
• open to change
• fast (hours instead of days)
• crossing organizational boundaries
• Includes teatime gossip, casual gatherings, lunch
time meetings.
• inaccuracy:
Levelling- deletion of crucial details
Sharpening- exaggeration of the most dramatic details

• Such channels are more active in organizations which are

not transparent
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 The Grapevine……
81
Employees rely on the grapevine when:
 they feel threatened,
 insecure,
 under stress
 there is pending change
 communication from management is limited

 While the grapevine generally carries the truth it

seldom carries the whole truth

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 Merits of Informal Communication
82

• Satisfies social needs of members –

• The workers an outlet to freely express fears, views and
thoughts.
• Better human relations –
• Speed - very speedy network to spread the information.
• It works as a linking chain - It serves to fill the possible
gaps in the formal communication.

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83 Informal Communication: Limitations

• Not authentic - Distortion because of different

interpretations.
• Responsibility cannot be fixed - oral rumors in nature and
very difficult to fix responsibility
• Not dependable - Informal channels may not always be
active therefore is not dependable.
• It may lead to the leakage of confidential information.
• Incomplete information - Grapevine information is
generally incomplete.
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84

What do you understand by

effectiveness and efficiency?

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85

IMPROVING THE
EFFECTIVENESS OF
COMMUNICATION

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 Interpersonal Communication
86
JOHARY WINDOW

FEEDBAC
K
KNOWN SELF/you
UNKNOWN

KNWN ARENA BLIND SPOT

FEEDBACK
OTHERS

HIDDEN UNKNOWN
UNKNOW
N

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 Interpersonal Communication
87
JOHARY WINDOW

FEEDBACK

KNOWN
SELF
UNKNOWN

KNWN
BLIND SPOT
FEEDBACK

ARENA
OTHERS
UNKNOWN

HIDDEN UNKNOWN

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88

Poor Communication Good Communication

• Results in • Results in understanding
misunderstanding
• Results in mistaken • Results in correct decision
decision and action and action
• Results in mistrust • Results in trust
• Causes problems and • Resolves problems and
results in disagreement conflict and results in
and conflict agreement and cooperation

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89

Poor Communication Good Communication

• Results in unproductive • Results in productive
performance performance
• Wastes Time • Saves time
• Steadier work flow • Poor work flow
• Stronger business • Poor relationship
relationships
• Enhanced professional • Poor image
image
• Raises moral • Demoralizes
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90

Principles of Communication
(7C’s)

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 1. Completeness
91

• Answer all questions asked.

• Give something extra, when desirable.
• Check for the “five W” questions (why, when,
where, what and who) and any other essentials.

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 2. Conciseness
92

• Include only relevant statements.

• Avoid unnecessary repetitions.

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 3. Consideration
93

Should you say a “spade” a “spade”?

• Focus on "you" instead of "I" and "we".
• Show reader benefit or interest in the receiver.
• Emphasize positive, pleasant facts.
• Apply integrity and ethics.

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 4. Concreteness
94

• Use specific facts and figures

• Choose vivid, image-building words

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95
5. Clarity

• Choose short, familiar, conversational

words.
• Construct effective sentences and
paragraphs.
• Include examples, illustrations, and other
visual aids, when desirable.

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96 6. Courtesy

Courtesy stems from a sincere you-attitude.

• Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful, and

appreciative.
• Omit expressions that irritate, hurt, or
belittle.
• Grant and apologize good-naturedly.
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 7. Correctness
97
• Use the right level of language
• Check accuracy of figures, facts and
words
• Maintain acceptable writing mechanics
• Choose nondiscriminatory expressions

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98

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99

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 Steps for Effective Communication
100

1. Plan before you communicate

2. Magnify the Listener’s Attention
3. Penetrate Barriers
4. Seek feedback
(Explained below….)

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 Step 1:Plan before you communicate
101
 Clarify your intent/goal/purpose -inform,
persuade, direct, decide
 Research and know your topic
– Cite Sources
– Offer Evidence (definitions, examples,
statistics, explanation)
– Use Logical, Rational Arguments
 Focus your Message

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 Step 1 cont’d…
102
 Be specific
 Understand your audience
What will make it easy for your audience
to understand?
 Be courteous and objective

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 Step 2: Capture and Magnify the receiver's attention
103
 Createinterest
 Convey importance
 Ask for listeners attention

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104
Step 3:Penetrate Barriers:

 Control or limit distractions

 Add visualization
 Use analogies
 Ask for feedback

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 Step 4: Seek feedback
105
L I S T E N…Actively:

 RECEIVE – concentrate on what is being said (verbally

and non-verbally)
 PERCEIVE – paraphrase your understanding
 DECODE – analyze and explore the situation to gain
further understanding
 RESPOND - Last – not first! Plan before you speak!

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106

End of chapter 2

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Instructor: Alemayehu M