10.

Fundamentals of Metal Casting

10.5 Heat Transfer
• The heat transfer during the complete cycle (from
pouring, to solidification, and to cooling to room
temperature) is another important consideration in
metal casting.
• Fig 10.10 shows the temperature distribution at
the interface of the mold wall and the liquid metal
during the solidification of metals in casting.
• The shape of the curve depends on the thermal
properties of the molten metal and the mold.

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
10.5 Heat Transfer

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
10.5.1 Solidification time
• During the early stages of solidification, a thin,
solidified skin begins to form at the cool mold
walls, and as time passes, the thickness of the
skin increases.
• Fig 10.11 shows the solidified skin on a steel
casting.
• The remaining molten metal is poured out at the
times indicated in the figure.
• Hollow ornamental and decorative objects are
made by a process called slush casting, which is
based on this principle.
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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
10.5.1 Solidification time

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
10.5.1 Solidification time
• The solidification time is a function of the
volume of a casting and its surface area
(Chvorinov’s rule):
n
 Volume 
Solidification time  C   10.7 
 Surface area 
where C is a constant that reflects (a) the mold
material, (b) the metal properties (including
latent heat), and (c) the temperature.

The parameter n has a value between 1.5 and 2

but usually is taken as 2.
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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
Example 10.2 Solidification times for various shapes

Three metal pieces being cast have the same volume

but different shapes: On is a sphere, one a cube, and
the other a cylinder with its height equal to its diameter.
Which piece will solidify the fastest, and which one the
slowest? Assume that n = 2

Solution The volume of the piece is taken as unity. Thus

from Eq. (10.7),

1
Solidification time 
Surface area 2

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
Example 10.2 Solidification times for various shapes

The respective surface areas are as follows:

13
Sphere: 4 3  3 
V   r , r   
3  4 
23
 3 
A  4r  4    4.84
2

 4 
Cube:
V  a , a  1, and A  6a  6
3 2

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
Example 10.2 Solidification times for various shapes

Cylinder:  1 
13

V  r h  2r , r   
2 3

 2 
23
 1 
A  2r  2rh  6r  6    5.4
2 2

 2 
The respective solidification times are therefore
tsphere  0.043C , tcube  0.028C , tcylinder  0.033C

Hence, the cube-shaped piece will solidify the fastest,

and the spherical piece will
solidify the slowest.
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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
10.5.2 Shrinkage
• Shrinkage, which causes dimensional changes
and (sometimes) cracking, is the result of the
following three sequential events:
1. Contraction of the molten metal as it cools prior
to its solidification.
2. Contraction of the metal during phase change
from liquid to solid (latent heatof fusion).
3. Contraction of the solidified metal (the casting)
as its temperature drops to ambient temperature.

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
10.5.2 Shrinkage
• The largest potential amount of shrinkage occurs
during the cooling of the casting to ambient
temperature.
• The amount of contraction during the solidification
of various metals is shown in Table 10.1.

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
10.6 Defects
• Fig 10.12 shows the examples of hot tears in
castings.
• These defects occur because the casting cannot
shrink freely during cooling, owing to constraints
in various portions of the molds and cores.
• Exothermic (heat-producing) compounds may be
used (as exothermic padding) to control cooling at
critical sections to avoid hot tearing.

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
10.6 Defects

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
10.6 Defects
• Fig 10.13 shows the examples of common
defects in castings.
• These defects can be minimized or eliminated by
proper design and preparation of molds and
control of pouring procedures.

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
10.6 Defects

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
10.6 Defects
• The International Committee of Foundry Technical
Associations has developed a standardized
nomenclature, consisting of seven basic categories of
casting defects identified with boldface capital letters:
A—Metallic projections
B—Cavities
C—Discontinuities
D—Defective surface
E—Incomplete casting
F—Incorrect dimensions or shape
G—Inclusions
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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
10.6.1 Porosity
• Porosity in a casting may be caused by
shrinkage, or gases, or both.
• Porous regions can develop in castings because
of shrinkage of the solidified metal.
• Microporosity also can develop when the liquid
metal solidifies and shrinks between dendrites
and between dendrite branches.

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
10.6.1 Porosity
• Porosity caused by shrinkage can be reduced or
eliminated by various means such as:
• Adequate liquid metal should be provided to avoid
cavities caused by shrinkage.
• Internal or external chills, as those used in sand
casting also are an effective means of reducing
shrinkage porosity.
• With alloys, porosity can be reduced or eliminated
by making the temperature gradient steep.
• Subjecting the casting to hot isostatic pressing is
another method of reducing porosity.
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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
10.6.1 Porosity
• Fig 10.14 shows the various types of (a) internal
and (b) external chills (dark areas at corners)
used in castings to eliminate porosity caused by
shrinkage.

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
10.6.1 Porosity
• Fig 10.15 shows the solubility of hydrogen in
aluminum.
• Note the sharp decrease in solubility as the
molten metal begins to solidify.

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
10.6.1 Porosity
• Whether microporosity is a result of shrinkage or
is caused by gases may be difficult to determine.
• If the porosity is spherical and has smooth walls,
it is generally from gases. If the walls are rough
and angular, porosity is likely from shrinkage
between dendrites.
• Gross porosity is from shrinkage and usually is
called a shrinkage cavity.

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
Example 10.2 Casting of aluminum automotive pistons
Figure 10.16 shows an aluminium piston used in
automotive internal-combustio engines. These products
must be manufactured at very high rates with very tight
dimensional tolerances and strict material requirements
in order to achieve proper operation. Economic concerns
are obviously paramount, and it is essential that pistons
be produced with a minimum of expensive finishing
operations and with few rejected parts.

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
Example 10.2 Casting of aluminum automotive pistons

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
Example 10.2 Casting of aluminum automotive pistons
Aluminum pistons are manufactured through casting
because of its capability to produce near-net shaped
parts at the required production rates. However, with
poorly designed molds, underfills or excess porosity can
cause parts to be rejected, adding to the cost. These
defects were traditionally controlled through the use of
large machining allowances coupled with the intuitive
design of molds based on experience.

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
Example 10.2 Casting of aluminum automotive pistons
The pistons are produced from high-silicon alloys, such
as 413.0 aluminum alloy. This alloy has high fluidity and
can create high-definition surfaces through
permanent mold casting; it also has high resistance to
corrosion, good weldability, and low specific gravity. The
universal acceptance of aluminum pistons for internal
combustion engine applications is due mainly to their
light weight and high thermal conductivity. Their low
inertia allows for higher engine speeds and reduced
counterweighting in the crankshaft, and the higher
thermal conductivity allows for more efficient heat
transfer from the engine.
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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
Example 10.2 Casting of aluminum automotive pistons
The H13 tool-steel mold is preheated 200° to 450°C,
depending on the cast alloy and part size. Initially, the
preheat is achieved with a hand-held torch, but after a few
castings, the mold reaches a steady–state temperature
profile. The molten aluminum is heated to between 100° to
200°C above its liquidus temperature, and then a shot is
placed into the infeed section of the mold. Once the molten
metal shot is in place, a piston drives the metal into the mold.
Because of the high thermal conductivity of the mold
material, heat extraction from the molten metal is rapid, and
the metal can solidify in small channels before filling the mold
completely. Solidification usually starts at one end of the
casting before the mold is filled fully.
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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
Example 10.2 Casting of aluminum automotive pistons
As with most alloys, it is desired to begin solidification at
one extreme end of the casting and have the
solidification front proceed across the volume. This
results in a directionally solidified microstructure and the
elimination of gross porosity that arises when two
solidification fronts meet inside a casting. Regardless,
casting defects such as undercuts, hot spots, porosity,
cracking, and entrapped air zone defects (such as blow
holes and scabs) can occur. With poor mold design,
5% of the castings can be defective.

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
Example 10.2 Casting of aluminum automotive pistons
In order to improve the reliability and reduce the costs associated
with permanent mold casting, computer-based modeling of mold
filling takes place to suggest potential causes of defects. The
computer models use the Bernoulli and continuity equations—
coupled with heat transfer and solidification—to model the casting
process and identify potential shortcomings. For example, Fig.
10.17 shows a result from a simulation of mold filling where a
volume of entrapped air remains
in the mold. This is corrected by placing a vent in the area of
concern to allow air to escape during casting. Computer
simulation allows designers to evaluate
mold features and geometries before purchasing expensive
tooling and has become an indispensible process to reduce costs
and eliminate defects in casting.
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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
Example 10.2 Casting of aluminum automotive pistons

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
Concept Summary

• Casting is a solidification process in which molten

metal is poured into a mold and allowed to cool.
The metal may flow through a variety of passages
(pouring basins, sprues, runners, risers, and gating
systems) before reaching the final mold cavity.
Bernoulli’s theorem, the continuity law, and the
Reynolds number are the analytical tools used in
designing castings, with the goals of an appropriate
flow rate and the elimination of defects associated
with fluid flow.

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
Concept Summary

• Solidification of pure metals takes place at a constant

temperature, whereas solidification of alloys occurs
over a range of temperatures. Phase diagrams are
important tools for identifying the solidification point
or points for technologically important metals.
• Composition and cooling rates of the molten metal
affect the size and shape of the grains and the
dendrites in the solidifying alloy. In turn, the size and
structure of grains and dendrites influence properties
of the solidified casting. Solidification time is a
function of the volume of a casting and its surface
area (Chvorinov’s rule).
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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
Concept Summary

• The grain structure of castings can be controlled by

various means to obtain the desired properties.
Because metals contract during solidification and
cooling, cavities can form in the casting. Porosity
caused by gases evolved during solidification can
be a significant problem, particularly because of its
adverse effect on the mechanical properties of
castings. Various defects also can develop in
castings from lack of control of material and
process variables.

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10. Fundamentals of Metal Casting
Concept Summary

• Although most metals shrink during solidification,

gray cast iron and some aluminum alloys actually
expand. Dimensional changes and cracking (hot
tearing) are difficulties which can arise during
solidification and cooling. Seven basic categories of
casting defects have been classified.
• Melting practices have a direct effect on the quality
of castings, as do foundry operations, such as
pattern and mold making, pouring of the melt,
removal of cast parts from molds, cleaning, heat
treatment, and inspection.

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