Classical

Vs
Quantum

12/06/2023 Dr. M V V K Srinivas Prasad, K L E F 1

 Classical physics – (Pre
1900)

• Physics – Newton

• Thermodynamics - Boltzmann, Gibbs et al.

• Electromagnetics - Maxwell et al.

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 Classical Physics

• The physical universe was deterministic.

• Light consisted of waves; ordinary matter was
composed of particles.
• Physical quantities (energy, momentum, etc.)
could be treated as continuous variables.
• There exists an objective physical reality
independent of any observer.
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 Failures of Classical Physics

Crucial experimental observations:

1. Black-body radiation (Planck in 1900)
2. Heat capacities of solids (Einstein 1905)
3. Photoelectric effect (Einstein in 1905)
4. Diffraction of electrons (Davisson and
Germer in 1925)

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 Blackbody Radiation

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 Heat Transfer
It does not require any
medium.

This method uses

electromagnetic waves which
transfer heat from one place
to the other.

Ex: Heat & Light from Sun.

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 If a body is HEATED……???
• It radiates heat, and its color depends on its
temperature
• Example: heating elements of a stove:
– Dark red: 550ºC
– Bright red: 700ºC
– Then: orange, yellow and finally white (really
hot !)
• The emission spectrum depends on the material

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 Prevost in 1970
Cold body Receives or absorbs max radiation and emits less radiation

Hot Body Emits more radiation and absorbs less radiation

1.All bodies emits radiations at all temperatures .
2.Whenever the temperature increases emission of energy
also increases.
3.When the temperature of body increases it gives IR,
visible, UV .
4.A body at lower temperatures, gives very a smaller
number of radiations.
5. A body at higher temperatures, it emits IR .

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 Blackbody
• It is perfect ABSORBER & perfect EMITTER.
 A good approximation of a black body is a small
hole leading to the inside of a hollow object.
 The hole acts as a perfect absorber.
 The nature of the radiation leaving the cavity
through the hole depends only on the
temperature of the cavity.

Ex: Lamp Black, Platinum Black

The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body is called blackbody radiation.

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  Characteristics depend on the temperature and surface properties.
 The thermal radiation consists of a continuous distribution of wavelengths
from all portions of the EM spectrum.
 At room temperature, the wavelengths of the thermal radiation are mainly in
the infrared region.
 As the surface temperature increases, the wavelength changes.
 It will glow red and eventually white.

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 Energy Spectra of Blackbody
 The blackbody spectrum depends
only on the temperature of the
object, and not on what it is made
of.
 As the temperature of an object
increases, it emits more blackbody
energy at all wavelengths.
 As the temperature of an object
increases, the peak wavelength of
the blackbody spectrum shifts
towards shorter wavelengths.
 The blackbody spectrum always
becomes small at the left-hand side
(the short wavelength, high
frequency side).

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 Laws of Blackbody Radiation
• Rayleigh-Jeans Law (Classical Physics)

• Stefan-Boltzmann Law

• Wein’s displacement law

• Planck’s Radiation Law (Quantum Physics)

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 Rayleigh – Jeans law
2ckT The energy distributions is directly
I  , T   proportional to the absolute
4 temperature and is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of
the wavelength

1 The Rayleigh – Jeans law is quite

successful at long wavelengths (low
4 frequencies). It fails badly at short
wavelengths (high frequencies).

The failure has become known as the

ultraviolet catastrophe.

In classical theory, the energies of

the EM waves are continuous.
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 Stefan-Boltzmann Law
• The total amount of radiation emitted by a Blackbody is
directly proportional to the Fourth power of its absolute
temperature.
• The energy radiated by a Blackbody per second per unit area is
directly proportional to the Fourth power of its absolute
temperature.

Energy = σ T 4
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 Stefan-Boltzmann Law (easy way)
This law links:
the total amount of energy flux
that is emitted by a blackbody
TO: the body’s temperature
(actually, the 4th power of the body’s
absolute temperature)

“the hotter the body, the (much)

greater the amount of energy flux
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or radiation”
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 Stefan-Boltzmann Law:
“I’m COOL, so I
“I’m HOT, so I emit emit LESSER
LARGE amounts of amounts of energy.
high intensity plus my ENERGY is
energy” at a lower intensity
than Mr. Hotshot
over there!”

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 Wien’s Displacement Law
• The intensity I is the total power radiated per unit area per unit
wavelength at a given temperature.
• Wien’s displacement law: The maximum of the distribution shifts
to smaller wavelengths as the temperature is increased.
maxT  2.898  10 mK 3

• Wavelength decreases as T increases

• This law holds good only for shorter wavelengths and not for longer
wavelengths.

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 Wien’s Law can be represented as:
m
= a/T
where λ m is the WAVELENGTH in the
spectrum at which the energy peak occurs,
(m indicates “max”)
T is the absolute TEMPERATURE
of the body, and a is a constant

(if λ m is expressed in micrometers.)

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 Note the
INVERSE
relationship
between
wavelength
and
temperature

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 Wien’s Law (easy way)
max = constant / T
(Inverse relationship between
wavelength and temperature)
“The hotter the body, the
shorter the wavelength”
“The cooler the body, the
longer the wavelength”
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 Wein’s Law:

“I’m HOT, so I emit

my maximum “I’m COOL, so I
amount of radiation emit my maximum
at SHORTER amount of radiation
wavelengths” at LONGER
wavelengths”

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 Max Planck
•1858 – 1847
•German physicist
•Introduced the
concept of “quantum
of action”
•In 1918 he was
awarded the Nobel
Prize for the discovery
of the quantized nature
of energy.
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 Planck’s Theory of Blackbody Radiation
•In 1900 Planck developed a theory of blackbody radiation that leads
to an equation for the intensity of the radiation.
•This equation is in complete agreement with experimental
observations.
•He assumed the cavity radiation came from atomic oscillations in the
cavity walls.
•Planck made two assumptions about the nature of the oscillators in
the cavity walls.

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 Planck’s Assumption, 1
•The energy of an oscillator can have only certain discrete
values En.
– En = n h ƒ
• n is a positive integer called the quantum number
• ƒ is the frequency of oscillation
• h is Planck’s constant
– This says the energy is quantized.
– Each discrete energy value corresponds to a different quantum
state.
• Each quantum state is represented by the quantum number, n.

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 Planck’s Assumption, 2
•The oscillators emit or absorb energy when making a
transition from one quantum state to another.
– The entire energy difference between the initial and final states
in the transition is emitted or absorbed as a single quantum of
radiation.
– An oscillator emits or absorbs energy only when it changes
quantum states.
– The energy carried by the quantum of radiation is E = h ƒ.

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 Planck’s Model Graph

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•Planck generated a theoretical expression for the wavelength distribution.

2πhc 2
I  λ ,T   5 hc λk T
– h = 6.626 x 10 J s
-34 .  λ e B
1

– h is a fundamental constant of nature.

•At long wavelengths, Planck’s equation reduces to the Rayleigh-Jeans expression.
•At short wavelengths, it predicts an exponential decrease in intensity with
decreasing wavelength.
– This is in agreement with experimental results.

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 Photoelectric Effect

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 The Photoelectric Effect
“The emission of electrons from a metal
surface when illuminated by light or any
other radiation of suitable wavelength”

IT WAS FIRST OBSERVED BY HEINRICH HERTZ IN 1887

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 N S
TO
HO
P

METAL
e ELE
CTR
e ON
S
e
e
e
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 I was only 26
in 1905!!

• Albert Einstein
explained the photo-
electric effect in
1905.
• He won the Nobel
Prize for his work in
1921.
• He also published
his special theory of
1879-1955 relativity in the same
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year.
Dr. M V V K Srinivas Prasad, K L E F 32
 Few Definations
• Work Function (φ): Minimum amount of energy
needed to eject an electron from an atom in metal.

• Threshold Frequency (ƒ0): Frequency of light that

carries photons with the amount of energy equal to
the work function of a metal; will eject an electron
with zero kinetic energy.

• Stopping Potential (Vs): Voltage an ejected electron

must move through before being stopped.
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 Photoelectric Effect

Metal Foil
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 Photoelectric Effect

Metal Foil
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 Photoelectric Effect

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 Photoelectric Effect
►When red light hits the metal foil, the foil does not emit
(give off) electrons.
►Blue light has more energy than red light.

►How could we get more energy into the red light?

►Try increasing the brightness (intensity).
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 Photoelectric Effect

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 Photoelectric Effect

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 Photoelectric Effect

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 Photoelectric Effect

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 Experimental Setup
1) The KE of the photoelectrons are
independent of the light intensity.
2) The KEmax of the photoelectrons, for a
material, depends only on the frequency of
the light.
3) The smaller the work function φ of the
material, the smaller is the threshold
frequency.
4) When the photoelectrons are produced,
their number is proportional to the
intensity of light.
5) The photoelectrons are emitted instantly
following illumination of the
photocathode, independent of the intensity
of the light.

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 Results from the Photoelectric Effect
What Scientists predicted What actually happened?

Increasing the intensity of light

would increase the kinetic energy
of emitted electrons

Electrons would be emitted

regardless of frequency as long
as intensity was great enough

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 Results from the Photoelectric Effect
What Scientists predicted What actually happened?
Increasing intensity of light only
Increasing the intensity of light increased the NUMBER of
would increase the kinetic energy electrons emitted, not energy
of emitted electrons

Electrons were emitted even at

Electrons would be emitted the lowest intensities, but the
regardless of frequency as long light had to be greater than a
as intensity was great enough certain frequency
The kinetic energy of the emitted
electrons was proportional to the
frequency of the incident light

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 Classical Interpretation
• The total amount of energy in a light wave increases as the light
intensity increases.
• The KEmax of the photoelectrons depends on the value of the light
frequency f and not on the intensity.
• The existence of a threshold frequency is completely inexplicable in
classical theory.
• For extremely low light intensities, a long time would elapse before any
one electron could obtain sufficient energy to escape. We observe,
however, that the photoelectrons are ejected almost immediately.

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 Characteristics of Photo Electrons

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hoton
Photoelectron Energy

…and some energy is

given to the electron as
kinetic energy.

Some energy is needed

- to release the electron
(the work function φ)…

Photon Energy = work function + kinetic energy of electron

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Factors affecting Photoelectric Effect:
With the help of this apparatus, we will now study the dependence of the
photoelectric effect on the following factors.
1. A potential difference between metal plate and collector.
2. The intensity of incident radiation.
3. Frequency of incident radiation.
4. Nature of the photo metal used
Effect of potential difference :  For a fixed frequency and intensity of incident
light, the photoelectric current increases with
increase in +ve potential applied to the anode.
 When all the photoelectrons reach the plate A,
current becomes maximum and is known as
saturation current.
 When the potential is decreased, the current
decreases but does not become zero at zero
potential.
 This shows that even in the absence of
accelerating potential, a few photoelectrons
manage to reach the plate on their own due to
their K.E.
 When –ve potential is applied to the plate A w.r.t. C, photoelectric current becomes
zero at a particular value of –ve potential called stopping potential or cut-off
potential.
 Intensity of incident light does not affect the stopping potential.

At stopping potential, the K.E max of electrons is equal to applied potential

 Intensity of incident radiation.

 For a fixed frequency, the

photoelectric current increases
linearly with increase in
intensity of incident light.

• Number of electrons emitted from the metal surface depends up on intensity of incident

radiation and stopping potential is independent of incident radiation.

• K.E of electrons is independent of incident radiation

Effect of Frequency of incident radiation.

 The graph between stopping potential and

frequency does not pass through the origin.
 It shows that there is a minimum value of
frequency called threshold frequency below
which photoelectric emission is not possible
however high the intensity of incident light
may be.
 It depends on the nature of the metal
emitting photoelectrons.
Effect of nature of the photo metal
 Laws of Photoelectric Emission
1. For a given material and a given frequency of incident radiation, the photoelectric
current number of photoelectrons ejected per second is directly proportional to the
intensity of the incident light.
2. For a given material and frequency of incident radiation, saturation current is found
to be proportional to the intensity of incident radiation, whereas the stopping
potential is independent of its intensity.
3. For a given material, there exists a certain minimum frequency of the incident
radiation below which no emissions of photoelectrons takes place. This frequency
is called threshold frequency.

12/06/2023 Dr. M V V K Srinivas Prasad, K L E F Confidential 54

 Laws of Photoelectric Emission
4. Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectron or equivalent stopping potential is independent of intensity of
incident light but depends only upon the frequency (or wavelength) of the incident
light.

5. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The time lag between the
incidence of radiations and emission of photoelectron is very small, less than even
10–9.

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 Einstein’s Theory
• Einstein suggested that the electromagnetic radiation
field is quantized into particles called photons. Each
photon has the energy quantum:

where f is the frequency of the light and h is Planck’s

constant.

• The photon travels at the speed of light in a vacuum,

and its wavelength is given by

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 Einstein’s Theory
• Conservation of energy yields:

where is the work function of the metal.

Explicitly the energy is

• The retarding potentials measured in the photoelectric effect are

the opposing potentials needed to stop the most energetic
electrons.

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 Quantum Interpretation
• The kinetic energy of the electron does not depend on the light
intensity at all, but only on the light frequency and the work
function of the material.

• Einstein in 1905 predicted that the stopping potential was linearly

proportional to the light frequency, with a slope h, the same
constant found by Planck.

• From this, Einstein concluded that light is a particle with energy:

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 Compton Effect

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 Arthur Holly Compton
• Compton Effect direct proof
that PHOTONS exhibit
particle nature.
• Noble Prize in 1927.
• When light encounters
charged particles, the
particles will interact with
the light and cause some of
the light to be scattered.
• In 1923, Arthur H. Compton
illuminated graphite (a form
of carbon) with X-rays

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 Compton Scattering
Question: Why was the discovery
of Compton scattering so
important ?
The 1927 Nobel Prize in Physics
was divided equally between Arthur
Holly Compton "for his discovery of
the effect named after him" and
Charles Thomson Rees Wilson "for
his method of making the paths of
electrically charged particles visible
by condensation of vapor".

Ans: In a classical physics picture: light is

a wave, and the final energy will be the
same as the initial. Compton scattering is
possible if light is composed of photons
(packets of energy quanta).
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 Compton observed that …….
• When a monochromatic beam of high frequency radiation
(e.g., X-rays and γ-ray) are scattered by a substance, then the
scattered radiation contains two type of wavelengths one
having same wavelength (λ) as that of incident radiation while
the other having the longer wavelength than that of incident
radiations. This effect is known as Compton Effect.

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 Before After
Collision Collision

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 Compton Scattering
• In the Compton experiment,
X-rays are scattered by
electrons. The scattered X-rays
have a longer wavelength than
the incident X-rays, and the
scattered wavelength depends on
the scattering angle ϕ.

• Explanation: When an incident

photon collides with an electron,
it transfers some of its energy to
the electron. The scattered
photon has less energy and a
longer wavelength than the
incident photon.

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 Assumptions
• Incident X-rays or EM radiations consists of photons
of same energy.

• Scattered electrons are assumed to be free particles.

• The electrons of the scattering material are assumed

to be at rest.

• Collisions between incident X-ray photon and free

electrons are perfectly elastic.

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 Energy Equation

The energies involved :

Photon : E - initial photon energy;
E ' - scattered photon energy;
Electron : initially, only the rest energy, me c 2 ;
final energy : Ee which is the TOTAL
RELATIVISTIC ENERGY
From energy conservati on :
E  me c 2  E ' Ee
Now, the MOMENTUM. It also must be conserved!
(we will discuss that in the next slide)
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 Momentum Equation
Momentum along x axis
p ' cos   pe cos   p

Momentum along y axis

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 Before Collision
Photon Electron
Energy

Momentum along X- axis 0

Momentum along Y-axis 0 0

After Collision
Photon Electron
Energy

Momentum along X- axis

Momentum along Y-axis

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 Solving Energy and Momentum Equations…

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 ∅
∅
Compton Shift

 Experimental intensity-versus-
∅ wavelength plots for four
scattering angles .
 The graphs for the three nonzero
angles show two peaks, one at λ0
and one at λ’ > λ0.
 The shifted peak at λ’ is caused by
the scattering of x-rays from free
∅ electrons.
 Compton shift equation:
Compton’s prediction for the
shift in wavelength
λ’ - λ0 = (h/mec)(1 – cos ).

h/mec = 0.00243 nm

Therefore scattering angle increases Compton shift increases

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 Matter Waves

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 Nature Loves Symmetry

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 If Radiation has dual nature

Why not Matter ?????

06/12/2023 01:03 PM 77
 Particle Vs Wave
PARTICLE WAV E
• Mass • Mass

• Velocity • Phase of wave velocity

• Position • Lack of position

• Momentum • Frequency & wavelength

• Energy • Amplitude
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 Particle…….
• Mass: must have definite mass.

• Velocity: must have certain velocity.

• Position: can be located at a definite point.

• Momentum: particle have define mass and velocity has

momentum p = mv.

• Energy: has different energies like PE, KE and rest mass energy
and so on.
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 Wave…….
• Mass: it is difficult to think about mass.
• Phase of wave velocity: instantaneous position and direction of
the wave.
• Lack of Position: it cannot be located at a definite place or
point.
• Frequency & wavelength: disturbance which repeats in equal
intervals of time.
• Amplitude: intensity of disturbance in the medium.

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 WAVE has…..

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 Louis de Broglie
• Wave nature of electrons.
• de Broglie wavelength.
• Nobel Prize in Physics
(1929).
• Henri Poincaré Medal
(1929).
• Albert I of Monaco Prize
(1932)
• Max Planck Medal (1938)
• Kalinga Prize (1952)

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 de-Broglie Matter Wave
A moving particle is always associated with a wave
called de Broglie or Matter wave.

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 Properties of Matter Waves
1. Moving particles generate matter waves.
2. Matter waves are neither electromagnetic nor mechanical in
nature.
3. Lighter the particle, greater is the wavelength.
4. Smaller the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength.
5. Velocity of matter waves depends on the velocity of the
material particles and is not a constant quantity.
6. The velocity of matter waves is greater than the velocity of
light.
7. Matter waves exhibit interference and diffraction
phenomenon.
8. Matter-wave represents the probability of finding a particle in
space.
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• Calculate the wavelength of a 50 kg skier
moving at 16 m/s.
• This wavelength
h (8.3 x 10-37 m) is
 about a billion,
mv trillion times
smaller than a
34
6.63  10 J s hydrogen atom!

 • This wavelength
is so small that it
50kg 16m / s is completely
unobservable.
  8.3  10 37
m
• Calculate the wavelength of an electron
moving at 1.0 x 106 m/s.
h

mv
34
6.63  10 J s
 31
9.11  10 kg 1.0  10 m / s
6

  7.3  10 10
m
• This wavelength (7.3 x 10-10 m) is in about the same
wavelength of x-rays.
• This is observable.