Microprocessors &

Microcontrollers (ECE3004)
Module – 01 (Part – 02)

Evolution of Microprocessor, Internal microprocessor (8086

to Pentium), Introduction to Microprocessors and
Microcontrollers
Introduction to development tools, logic analyzer, in-circuit
emulator
Dr. Susant Kumar Panigrahi
Assistant Professor
School of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
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Types of Microprocessor (P) Based on
Instruction Set

Reduced Instruction Set

Computer

Complex Instruction
Set Computers
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CISC vs RISCA race to increase the CPU performance
Example:

Multiplying 2 Nos. in Memory:

• The main memory is divided into locations numbered from (row)
1: (column) 1 to (row) 6: (column) 4.
• The execution unit can only operate on data that has been loaded
into one of the six registers (A, B, C, D, E, or F).

• Task: Let's say we want to find the product of two numbers - one
stored in location 2:3 and another stored in location 5:2 - and then
store the product back in the location 2:3.
CISC vs RISC A race to increase the CPU performance
Multiplying 2 Nos. in Memory (CISC):
• The primary goal of CISC architecture is to complete a task in as few lines The primary advantages of this
of assembly as possible. system is that:
• This is achieved by building processor hardware that is capable of i. The compiler has to do
understanding and executing a series of operations. very little work to translate
a high-level language
• For this particular task, a CISC processor would come prepared with a statement into assembly.
specific instruction (we'll call it "MULT"). ii. Because the length of the
• Thus, the entire task of multiplying two numbers can be completed with code is relatively short.
one instruction: iii. Very little RAM is required
to store instructions.

• MULT is what is known as a "complex instruction." It operates directly on

the computer's memory banks and does not require the programmer to
explicitly call any loading or storing functions.
CISC vs RISC A race to increase the CPU performance
Multiplying 2 Nos. in Memory (RISC): The primary advantages of this
system is that:
• RISC processors only use simple instructions that can be executed i. Because each instruction
within one clock cycle. requires only one clock cycle
• Thus, the "MULT" command described above could be divided into to execute, the entire program
three separate commands: will execute in approximately
the same amount of time as
 LOAD: which moves data from the memory bank to a register. the multi-cycle "MULT"
 PROD: which finds the product of two operands located within the command.
registers. ii. RISC "reduced instructions"
 STORE: which moves data from a register to the memory banks. require less transistors of
hardware space than the
complex instructions, leaving
more room for general
purpose registers.
iii. Pipelining is also possible.

• At first, this may seem like a much less efficient way of completing the
operation. Because there are more lines of code, more RAM is needed to store
the assembly level instructions.
CISC vs RISC A race to increase the CPU performance

The Performance Equation:

CISC: Attempts to minimize the number of

instructions per program, sacrificing the number of
cycles per instruction.

RISC: Does the opposite, reducing the cycles per

instruction at the cost of the number of instructions
per program.
CISC vs RISC A race to increase the CPU performance

RISC CISC
CISC:
Focus on software Focus on hardware IBM 370/168 – It was introduced in the year
1970. CISC design is a 32 bit processor and
Uses both hardwired and micro four 64-bit floating point registers.
Uses only Hardwired control unit
programmed control unit
VAX 11/780 – CISC design is a 32-bit
processor and it supports many numbers of
Transistors are used for storing addressing modes and machine instructions
Transistors are used for more registers
complex Instructions which is from Digital Equipment
Corporation.
Fixed sized instructions Variable sized instructions Intel 80486 – It was launched in the year
Can perform only Register to Register Can perform REG to REG or REG to 1989 and it is a CISC processor, which has
Arithmetic operations MEM or MEM to MEM instructions varying lengths from 1 to 11 and
it will have 235 instructions.
Requires more number of registers Requires less number of registers

Code size is large Code size is small RISC:

A instruction execute in single clock Instruction take more than one clock Power PC 601, 604, 615, 620
cycle cycle
Instruction are larger than size of one
A instruction fit in one word
word
Special Processor
These are the processors which are designed for some special purposes.

Coprocessor
• A coprocessor is a specially designed microprocessor, which can handle its particular
function many times faster than the ordinary microprocessor.

For example − Math Coprocessor.

• Some Intel math-coprocessors are −
• 8087-used with 8086
• 80287-used with 80286
• 80387-used with 80386
Special Processor
These are the processors which are designed for some special purposes.

Input/output Processor
• It is a specially designed microprocessor having a local memory of its own, which is used to
control I/O devices with minimum CPU involvement.

For example −
• DMA (direct Memory Access) controller
• Keyboard/mouse controller
• Graphic display controller
• SCSI port controller
Special Processor
DSP (Digital Signal Processor)
• This processor is specially designed to process the analog signals into a digital form. This is
done by sampling the voltage level at regular time intervals and converting the voltage at
that instant into a digital form. This process is performed by a circuit called an analogue to
digital converter, A to D converter or ADC.
• A DSP contains the following components −
• Program Memory − It stores the programs that DSP will use to process data.
• Data Memory − It stores the information to be processed.
• Compute Engine − It performs the mathematical processing, accessing the program from the program
memory and the data from the data memory.
• Input/output − It connects to the outside world.
• Applications
• Sound and music synthesis
• Audio and video compression
• Video signal processing
• 2D and 3d graphics acceleration.
• For example − Texas Instrument’s TMS 320 series, e.g., TMS 320C40, TMS320C50.
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Evolution of Microprocessor
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Intel 4004
Year of introduction 1971

 4-bit microprocessor

 4 KB main memory

 45 instructions

 PMOS technology

It was first programmable device which was used in calculators

Intel 8008
Year of introduction 1972

 8-bit version of 4004

 16 KB main memory

 48 instructions

 PMOS technology

 Slow
Intel 8080
Year of introduction 1973

 8-bit microprocessor

 64 KB main memory

 2 microseconds clock cycle time

 500,000 instructions/sec.

 10X faster than 8008

 NMOS technology

 Drawback was that it needed three power supplies.

 Small computers (Microcomputers) were designed in mid 1970’s using 8080 as CPU.
Intel 8085
Year of introduction 1975

 8-bit microprocessor-upgraded version of 8080

 64 KB main memory

 1.3 microseconds clock cycle time

 246 instructions

 Intel sold 100 million copies of this 8-bit microprocessor

 uses only one +5v power supply.

Intel 8086
Year of introduction 1978 for 8086 and 1979 for 8088
 16-bit microprocessors

 Data bus width of 8086 is 16 bit and 8 bit for 8088

 1 MB main memory

 400 nanoseconds clock cycle time

 6 byte instruction cache for 8086 and 4 byte for 8088

 Other improvements included more registers and additional instructions

 In 1981 IBM decided to use 8088 in its personal computer

Other Microprocessors & Comparison
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Components of Computer System

Computer System
Three Main Component:
1. Processor [To execute Program]
2. Memory [To store/retrieve data/program] P Memory
3. I/O [To provide input/display result]

I/O

1. Processor : The computers are used for computing Fig.: Computing System
and the main task of computing is done by processor
or CPU (that contains an ALU).

Computing needs Programing.

Programming P
• The main job of the CPU is to execute programs using the
fetch-decode-execute cycle (also known as the instruction
cycle).

I. Fetch: In this operation the instruction from the memory is

fetched. Basically, the next instruction to be executed is
fetched. 25
Fig.: Instruction Cycle

II. Decode: Decoding is not about converting instructions to

binary (hex) equivalent.
Decoding: 3-types of programming language:
a = b + c; [High-level Language]
ADD B, C; [Assembly Language]
0001001001….. 10 [Machine Level Language]
Decoding …. Assembler and
compiler are used
High Level Machine Level
Compiler to convert the
Language Language
instruction
mnemonics to
equivalent binary
Assembly Machine Level
Assembler form for
Language Language
redability.
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 Every instruction has a opcode (instruction machine code or instruction
code). Decoding ?
 After fetching of instruction processor will look at the binary number
(opcode) to decode it to understand what is the instruction and what
operation has to be performed.
 Ex: 8051 C has 256 instructions; thus has 256 opcodes.
 What would be the size of decoder to decode 256 instruction?
 Memory

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• Primary memory includes ROM and RAM, and is located close to the CPU on
the computer motherboard, enabling the CPU to read data from primary
memory very quickly indeed. It is used to store data that the CPU needs
imminently so that it does not have to wait for it to be delivered.
• Secondary memory by contrast, is usually physically located within a separate
storage device, such as a hard disk drive or solid state drive (SSD), which is
connected to the computer system either directly or over a network. The cost per
gigabyte of secondary memory is much lower, but the read and write speeds are
significantly slower.
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ALU

ALU
Registers ROM RAM

Control Unit

Registers
Timer Interrupt

Serial Watchdog
Communication Timer
Control Unit
Ports
Microprocessor Development Tools
Software Tools:
• Assembler
• Linker
• Loader
• Compiler
• Libraries
• Pre-compiler
• Simulator
• IDE - integrated development environment
Development Tools
Hardware Tools:
• In Circuit Emulator (ICE)
• Logic Analyzer
• Microprocessor Development Systems
Assembler
• Translates the assembly language mnemonics for instructions to corresponding binary codes.

• Reads the source file of your program from the disk, then determines the displacement of named
data items, the offset of labels, etc. and puts this information in a symbol table.

• Produces the binary code for each instruction and inserts the offsets, etc. that it calculated during
the first pass.

• The assembler generates 2 files on the floppy disk or hard disk. The first file is called object file
(.obj).

• The second file generated by assembler is called the assembler list file and is given extension (.lst).
Linker
 A linker is a program used to join several object files into one large object file.
 The linker produces a link file which contains the binary codes for all the
combined modules.
 linker also produces a link map file which contains the address information about
the linked files (.exe).
Logic Analyzer
 Developed out of the need to be able de-bug and undertake fault-finding on
microprocessor based systems, need for simultaneous monitoring of many lines
and test points.
 Widely used to develop and debug complex digital electronic logic circuits
 Displays traces of multiple logic channels and reveal the circuit operation.
 Displays relative timing of a large number of signals, enabling traces of logic
signals to be seen in such a way that the operation of several lines in a digital
circuit can be monitored and investigated.
 Have much greater levels of flexibility and processing power when connected with
computer.
Logic Analyzer
Logic Analyzer Characteristics
• Multiple channels
 About 32 and 200+ channels, each channel monitoring one digital line

• Provide a time display of logic states

 Horizontal time axis and a vertical axis to indicate a logic high or low states

• Display logic states

 Signals entering various channels are converted into a high or low state for further
processing within the analyzer. It provides a logic timing diagram of the various lines being
monitored.

• Does NOT display analogue information

 Monitors the logic operation of the system.

Logic Analyzer Applications
• Verifying and debugging the operation of digital designs looking a logic states
and timings.

• Correlate a large number of digital signals

• Investigate the system operation.

• Detect timing violations

• Trace embedded software operation.

In Circuit Emulation (ICE)
• ICE is the use of a hardware device or in-circuit emulator used to debug
the software of an embedded system.

• It operates by using a processor with the additional ability to support

debugging operations, as well as to carry out the main function of the
system.

• Particularly for older systems, with limited processors, this usually

involved replacing the processor temporarily with a hardware emulator: a
more powerful although more expensive version.

• It was historically in the form of bond-out processor which has many

internal signals brought out for the purpose of debugging. These signals
End of Module - 01