AUDIO

FREQUENCY
AMPLIFIERS
By: BOCA
What is audio frequency?
An audio frequency or audible frequency (AF) is
a periodic vibration whose frequency is audible to the
average human. The SI unit of frequency is
the hertz (Hz).

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 The generally accepted standard hearing range for
humans is 20 to 20,000 Hz. Frequencies below 20 Hz
are generally felt rather than heard, assuming
the amplitude of the vibration is great enough. Sound
frequencies above 20 kHz are called ultrasonic.

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 The sounds people take in every day generally
range from 250 to 6,000 hertz. However, people
without hearing loss can hear and process sounds from
20 to 20,000 hertz. Any sound above 10,000 hertz can
be extremely uncomfortable to the human ear.

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 Any sound with a frequency below the audible
range of hearing (i.e., less than 20 Hz) is known as
an infrasound and any sound with a frequency above
the audible range of hearing (i.e., more than 20 000 Hz)
is known as an ultrasound.

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An audio frequency
wave, like any other
wave, is introduced into
a medium by a vibrating
object. vocal cords of a
person, the vibrating
string and sound board
of a guitar or violin, or
the vibrating diaphragm
of a radio speaker
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Examples of low audio frequency
 Barking dogs
 Certain speech sounds like the
letters j, u, and z
 Sounds from a lawnmower
 Thunder
 Electric fan motor

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Examples of high audio frequency
 Female voices
 Children laughing or squealing
 Chirping birds
 Certain speech sounds such as the
letters f, s, and th
 Airplane sound

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Human Hearing Range
A normal human hearing range typically falls
between 0 to 140 decibels. However, people should
avoid prolonged exposure to sounds above 80 decibels
since that noise level can damage hearing.

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PITCH and FREQUENCY
The frequency of a wave refers to how often the
particles of the medium vibrate when a wave passes
through the medium. The frequency of a wave is
measured as the number of complete back-and-forth
vibrations of a particle of the medium per unit of time.
1 Hertz = 1 vibration/second

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PITCH and FREQUENCY
The first particle of the medium begins vibrating,
at say .500 Hz, and begins to set the second particle into
vibrational motion at the same frequency of .500 Hz.
The second particle begins vibrating at .500 Hz and
thus sets the third particle of the medium into
vibrational motion at .500 Hz.

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PITCH and FREQUENCY
The sensation of a frequency is commonly referred
to as the pitch of a sound. A high pitch sound
corresponds to a high frequency sound wave and a low
pitch sound corresponds to a low frequency sound
wave.

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AUDIO SPECTRUM
The audio spectrum range spans from 20 Hz to
20,000 Hz and can be effectively broken down into
seven different frequency bands, with each band having
a different impact on the total sound.

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The seven frequency bands
 Sub-bass
 Bass
 Low midrange
 Midrange
 Upper midrange
 Presence
 Brilliance

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Sub Bass: 20 to 60 Hz
The sub-bass provides the first usable low
frequencies on most recordings. The deep bass
produced in this range is usually felt more than it is
heard, providing a sense of power.

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Bass: 60 to 250 Hz
The bass range determines how fat or thin the
sound is. The fundamental notes of rhythm are
centered on this area. Too much boost in the bass
region tends to make the music sound boomy.

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Low Midrange: 250 to 500 Hz
The low midrange contains the low order
harmonics of most instruments and is generally viewed
as the bass presence range.

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Midrange: 500 Hz to 2 kHz
The midrange determines how prominent an
instrument is in the mix. If boosting in this area, be
very cautious, especially on vocals. The ear is
particularly sensitive to how the human voice sounds
and its frequency coverage.

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Upper Midrange: 2 to 4 kHz
Human hearing is extremely sensitive at the high
midrange frequencies, with the slightest boost around
here resulting in a huge change in the sound timbre.
However, too much boost around the 3 kHz range can
cause listening fatigue.

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Presence: 4 kHz to 6 kHz
The presence range is responsible for the clarity
and definition of a sound. It is the range at which most
home stereos center their treble control. Over-boosting
can cause an irritating, harsh sound.

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Brilliance: 6 kHz to 20 kHz
The brilliance range is composed entirely of
harmonics and is responsible for sparkle and air of a
sound. Boost around 12 kHz makes a recording sound
more Hi-Fi. Be cautious over boosting in this region as
it can accentuate hiss and cause ear fatigue.

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 Summary Table
Frequency Range Frequency Values
Sub-bass 20 to 60 Hz
Bass 60 to 250 Hz
Low midrange 250 to 500 Hz
Midrange 500 Hz to 2 kHz
Upper midrange 2 to 4 kHz
Presence 4 to 6 kHz
Brilliance 6 to 20 kHz

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AMPLIFIERS
An amplifier is an electronic device or circuit
which is used to increase the magnitude of the signal
applied to its input. In They are commonly used
devices as they have the ability to amplify a relatively
small input signal, for example from a Sensor such as a
photo-device, into a much larger output signal to drive
a relay, or loudspeaker for example.

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AMPLIFIERS

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VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS
A voltage amplifier is the one that produces an
output signal with increased voltage level when a low
voltage signal is input to it. It is used in such
applications where we need signal transmission at
higher voltage through a long wire. The voltage
amplifiers are used in various applications such as in
wireless communication, broadcasting of signals, audio
equipment like speakers, etc.
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POWER AMPLIFIERS
As its name implies, a power amplifier is an
electronic device which boosts the power level of an
input signal. The power amplifiers are extensively used
in several applications like in headphone drivers, TVs,
mobiles, music systems, microwave ovens, etc.

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CLASSES OF AMPLIFIERS
 Class A Amplifier
 Class B Amplifier
 Class AB Amplifier
 Class C Amplifier

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CLASS A AMPLIFIER
The class A amplifier has the characteristics of
good fidelity and low efficiency. Fidelity means that
the output signal is just like the input signal in all
aspects except amplitude. It has the same shape and
frequency. In other words the output transistors never
turns “OFF” ,thus a Class-A amplifier is very inefficient.

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CLASS A AMPLIFIER

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CLASS A AMPLIFIER
A simple transistor amplifier that is operated class
A is shown in the figure. Since the output signal is a
100% (or 360°) copy of the input signal, current in the
output circuit must flow for 100% of the input signal
time. This is the definition of a class A amplifier.
Amplifier current flows for 100% of the input signal.

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CLASS B AMPLIFIER
This Amplifier uses two complimentary
transistors to amplify each half of the output waveform.
One transistor conducts for only one-half of the signal
waveform while the other conducts for the other or
opposite half of the signal waveform. This means that
each transistor spends half of its time in the active
region and half its time in the cut-off region amplifying
only 50% of the input signal.
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CLASS B AMPLIFIER

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CLASS B AMPLIFIER
This push-pull design of amplifier is obviously
more efficient than Class A, at about 50%, but the
problem with the class B amplifier design is that it can
create distortion at the zero-crossing point of the
waveform due to the transistors dead band of input
base voltages from -0.7V to +0.7.

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CLASS AB AMPLIFIER
Class AB amplifiers have better efficiency and
poorer fidelity than class A amplifiers. They are used
when the output signal need not be a complete
reproduction of the input signal. It is currently one of
the most common used types of audio power amplifier
design.

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CLASS AB AMPLIFIER

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CLASS AB AMPLIFIER
Therefore, in a class AB amplifier design each of
the push-pull transistors is conducting for slightly more
than the half cycle of conduction in class B, but much
less than the full cycle of conduction of class A. In other
words, the conduction angle of a class AB amplifier is
somewhere between 180o and 360o .

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CLASS C AMPLIFIER
The Class C Amplifier design has the greatest
efficiency but the poorest fidelity of the classes of
amplifiers. It is one kind of amplifier where the
transistor conduct for less than 180° (one-half cycle of
the input signal) and its typical value is 80° to 120°. The
reduced conduction creates a lot of audio distortion.
The output signal bears very little resemblance to the
input signal.
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CLASS C AMPLIFIER

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DISTORTION
Distortion in Amplifier basically implies the
variation in the waveform received at the output with
respect to the applied input. The unwanted alterations
generated during amplification is known as distortion.
If voltage varies positive and negative by an equal
amount, this variation is less than full 360⁰ cycle, then it
is said that the signal is distorted.

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DISTORTION

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TYPES OF DISTORTION

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NON-LINEAR DISTORTION
This type of distortion occurs in an amplifier when
the signal input is large and the active device is driven
into a non-linear region of its characteristics.

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AMPLITUDE DISTORTION
This type of distortion occurs due to attenuation
in the peak value of the waveform. It occurs mainly
due to incorrect biasing and clipping. As we know
that if the biasing point of the transistor is correct, one
can have output is the exact replica of input in the
amplified form.

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AMPLITUDE DISTORTION
Case 1: Suppose insufficient biasing is provided, the “Q
point” will lie near the lower half of the load line. In
such condition, negative half of input is clipped and we
get a distorted signal at the output of the amplifier.

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AMPLITUDE DISTORTION

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AMPLITUDE DISTORTION
Case 2: Suppose an extra bias potential is provided, the
“Q point” will now be at the upper half of the load line.
This condition gives an output that is cut-off at positive
half of the waveform.

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AMPLITUDE DISTORTION

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AMPLITUDE DISTORTION
Case 3: Sometimes correct biasing also leads to
distortion in the output in case of the large input signal.
This is so because the large input signal is amplified by
the gain of the amplifier. In this case, both positive and
negative half of the waveform gets clipped at some
portion.

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AMPLITUDE DISTORTION

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LINEAR DISTORTION
This type of distortion occurs when small input
signal drives the device and it operates in the linear
region of its characteristics. This mainly occurs due to
frequency dependent characteristics of the active
devices.

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ACTIVE
AND
PASSIVE
DEVICES

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FREQUENCY DISTORTION
In frequency distortion, the level of amplification
varies with respect to frequency. In a practical amplifier,
during amplification input signal consist of
fundamental frequency along with different frequency
components. This different frequency component is
known as harmonics.

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FREQUENCY DISTORTION

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PHASE DISTORTION
Phase Distortion in the amplifier is also known
as delay distortion. As the name indicates whenever
there is a time delay between input and occurrence of
the signal at the output. It is said to be phase distorted
signal. It occurs mainly due to electrical reactance.

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PHASE DISTORTION

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FEEDBACK
In electronics, feedback is defined as the process of
returning part of the signal output from a circuit or
device back to the input of that circuit or device.
Feedback systems are widely used in amplifier circuits,
oscillators, process control systems, and in many other
areas.

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FEEDBACK

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POSITIVE FEEDBACK
Positive feedback adds to the signal that needs
correction. Positive feedback control of the op-amp is
achieved by applying a small part of the output voltage
signal at Vout back to the non-inverting ( + ) input
terminal via the feedback resistor, RF.

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POSITIVE FEEDBACK
If the input voltage Vin is positive, the op-amp
amplifies this positive signal and the output becomes
more positive. Some of this output voltage is returned
back to the input by the feedback network. Thus the
input voltage becomes more positive, causing an even
larger output voltage and so on. Eventually the output
becomes saturated at its positive supply rail.

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POSITIVE FEEDBACK

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NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
In a “negative feedback control system”, the set
point and output values are subtracted from each other
as the feedback is “out-of-phase” with the original
input. The effect of negative feedback is to “reduce” the
gain. For example, if someone criticizes you or gives you
negative feedback about something, you feel unhappy
about yourself and therefore lack energy, you feel less
positive.
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NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
Negative feedback control of the amplifier is
achieved by applying a small part of the output voltage
signal at Vout back to the inverting ( – ) input terminal
via the feedback resistor, Rf. If the input voltage Vin is
positive, the op-amp amplifies this positive signal, but
because its connected to the inverting input of the
amplifier, and the output becomes more negative.

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NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

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REFERENCE

The Physics classroom

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