Babayev Ramin

What Exactly Is A VOR Station?

A VHF Omni Directional

Range Radio (VOR) is the
most common ground-
based navigational aid
(NAVAID) you'll use. VOR
navigation allows your to
fly point to point along
established airways
between VORs. Here's what
a VOR station looks like:
What Exactly Is A VOR Station?

While some VORs are being

slowly phased out by the FAA,
there are still hundreds of VOR
stations around the country.
They're valuable sources of
position information for cross
country flights, instrument
approach procedures, and if
you get lost, they can help you
quickly pinpoint your position.
 An aircraft's VOR antenna, which is usually
How VORs Work located on the tail, picks up this signal and
transfers it to the receiver in the cockpit. The
aircraft's VOR receiver compares the difference
between the VOR's variable and reference phase,
and determines the aircraft's bearing from the
station. This bearing is the radial that the aircraft
is currently on.

The frequency range for a VOR is between 108.0

MHz and 117.95 MHz. Every VOR is oriented to
magnetic north (more on this in a bit), and emits
360 radials from the station. The VOR sends out
one stationary master signal, and one rotating
variable signal. These are also called "reference"
and "variable" phases.
Most VORs have distance measuring equipment (DME) or tactical air
navigation equipment (TACAN) installed within the VOR station.
When a VOR is collocated with DME, it's labeled as "VOR-DME." On
the other hand, when a VOR is collocated with a TACAN, it's called a
VORTAC. You can find them charted on VFR Sectional Charts, IFR
Low Charts, IFR High Charts, SIDs, STARs, and Instrument
Approaches. Here's what VOR symbols look like:
VORs are assigned radio channels between
108.0 MHz and 117.95 MHz (with 50 kHz
spacing); this is in the very high frequency
(VHF) range. The first 4 MHz is shared
with the instrument landing system (ILS)
band. In the United States, frequencies
within the pass band of 108.00 to 111.95
MHz which have an even 100 kHz first
digit after the decimal point (108.00, 108.05,
108.20, 108.25, and so on) are reserved for
VOR frequencies while frequencies within
the 108.00 to 111.95 MHz pass band with
an odd 100 kHz first digit after the decimal
point (108.10, 108.15, 108.30, 108.35, and so
on) are reserved for ILS.
The VOR encodes azimuth (direction from the station) as the phase
relationship between a reference signal and a variable signal. One
of them is amplitude modulated, and one is frequency modulated.
On conventional VORs (CVOR), the 30 Hz reference signal is
frequency modulated (FM) on a 9,960 Hz subcarrier. On these
VORs, the amplitude modulation is achieved by rotating a slightly
directional antenna exactly in phase with the reference signal at 30
revolutions per second. Modern installations are Doppler VORs
(DVOR), which use a circular array of typically 48 omni-directional
antennas and no moving parts. The active antenna is moved around
the circular array electronically to create a doppler effect, resulting
in frequency modulation.
 A VOR station serves a volume of airspace called its Service Volume.
Some VORs have a relatively small geographic area protected from
interference by other stations on the same frequency—called "terminal"
or T-VORs. Other stations may have protection out to 130 nautical miles
(240 kilometres) or more. It is popularly thought that there is a standard
difference in power output between T-VORs and other stations, but in
fact the stations' power output is set to provide adequate signal strength
in the specific site's service volume.

Additionally, two new service volumes – "VOR low" and

"VOR high" – were added in 2021, providing expanded
coverage above 5,000 feet AGL. This allows aircraft to continue
to receive off-route VOR signals despite the reduced number
of VOR ground stations provided by the VOR Minimum
Operational Network.
 Distance Measuring Equipment

Distance measuring equipment (DME) requires both ground-based

and in-aircraft equipment. You'll usually find DME equipment co-
located with a VOR or ILS/LOC. NAVAIDs like VORs and ILS
systems transmit their navigation signals over VHF. On the other
hand, DME is transmitted over UHF. The FAA has matched standard
VHF NAVAID frequencies to associated UHF DME frequencies.
 For example, all VORs operating on 113.0
will use the same DME frequency,
regardless of where the VOR is. The FAA
spaces out NAVAIDs to ensure mixed
frequencies don't inhibit your receiver.

DME radios measure distance by timing

the interval between the "interrogation
pulse" from the transmitter and the "reply
pulse" from the receiver. It's sort of like
how submarines use sonar signals
bouncing off objects to map the ocean floor.
DME is displayed in nautical miles and measured in terms of
something called "slant-range distance." Slant-range
measurements will always exceed planned distances due to how
high the aircraft is flying.

For example, if an aircraft is flying directly overhead a DME

transmitter at an altitude of 6,000 feet, the DME will read
approximately 1 NM.
DME requires line-of-sight between the aircraft and the ground station,
and terrain and distance beyond the horizon will prevent DME from
working.

Ground-based DME transmitters are also rated to handle roughly 100

aircraft at a time. If the equipment is overloaded by too many aircraft,
those farthest away may not be able to pick up DME signals at all.
GPS DME vs. Traditional DME
Thanks to GPS, pilots are using traditional DME less and less. If you're flying IFR
with an approved GPS, you can use GPS distance to substitute for DME.

For instance, if you're flying on an ILS and the DME for the FAF is 5 miles from
the LOC antenna, and you're 2 miles away from the fix, your GPS DME will give
you a 2 mile distance to the FAF.

If you want GPS DME to match traditional DME on an ILS approach, you could
type in "Direct IXXX" to get distances that match your approach chart.

We don't recommend you do it, however, because you might end up placing a
direct-to line on your map, leading to confusion about which course you're
following to the runway.
 Don't Forget The HOLD Function!
Have you ever flown an ILS that references distance information from a nearby VOR, instead of the
LOC? For aircraft equipped with a DME radio, you should understand what the "HOLD" button
does. When you're flying an approach that references DME off a nearby NAVAID, you have to first
tune your NAV radio to the DME source, click "HOLD," and then tune the approach frequency for
navigation data. Remember how we mentioned that DME UHF frequencies are always associated
with individual VHF frequencies? If you "HOLD" the DME frequency from the NAVAID you have
tuned, you'll lock the DME frequency from switching based on you tuning a new NAVAID.
 Understanding Radio Altimeters
Radio Altimeters, also known as Radar Altimeters, are crucial navigation devices used primarily in
aviation and space applications. They provide essential altitude data by sending radio waves from an
antenna mounted on the aircraft to the ground and then measuring the time it takes for the signal to
return.
 Working Principle
The operational principle behind radio altimeters is simple yet effective. It relies on the fundamental
properties of radio wave propagation and the speed of light. A radio altimeter transmits a radio
frequency signal towards the ground and receives the reflected signal. The time difference between
transmission and reception is directly proportional to the altitude of the aircraft above ground level
(AGL).
Components of a Radio Altimeter
A radio altimeter system typically consists of four main components: the transmitter,
antenna, receiver, and display unit.

The transmitter generates and sends out the radio frequency signal.
The antenna is used to transmit the outgoing signal towards the ground and to capture the
reflected signal.
The receiver calculates the time difference between the transmission and reception of the
signal.
The display unit presents the calculated altitude to the pilot.
 A radio altimeter transmits a carrier wave at 4.3 GHz from the aeroplane to the ground using a
transceiver and a directional antenna. The wave travels at a constant speed and is frequency
modulated at 50 MHz. It collides with surface objects and bounces back toward the aeroplane,
where it is picked up by a second antenna. The transceiver processes the signal by measuring the
elapsed time the signal travelled and the frequency modulation that occurred. The display indicates
height above the terrain (ground) also known as above ground leve
For AGL information at low altitudes, a radar altimeter is more
accurate and responsive than an air pressure altimeter. The
indicator is normally located far away from the transceiver. On
multifunctional and glass cockpit displays, decision height
awareness is displayed as a numeric number with a bug, light, or
colour change to notify when that altitude is reached. Large aircraft
may use radio altimeter data to create a ground proximity warning
system (GPWS), which audibly warns the crew of potentially
dangerous terrain below the plane. On the EADI, a decision height
window (DH) shows the radar altitude.
 In civil aviation
Radar altimeters are frequently used by commercial aircraft for approach and landing, especially in low-visibility conditions
(see instrument flight rules) and automatic landings, allowing the autopilot to know when to begin the flare maneuver. Radar
altimeters give data to the auto throttle which is a part of the Flight Computer.

Radar altimeters generally only give readings up to 2,500 feet (760 m) above ground level (AGL). Frequently, the weather
radar can be directed downwards to give a reading from a longer range, up to 60,000 feet (18,000 m) above ground level
(AGL). As of 2012, all airliners are equipped with at least two and possibly more radar altimeters, as they are essential to
autoland capabilities. (As of 2012, determining height through other methods such as GPS is not permitted by regulations.)
Older airliners from the 1960s (such as the British Aircraft Corporation BAC 1-11) and smaller airliners in the sub-50 seat class
(such as the ATR 42 and BAe Jetstream series) are equipped with them.
In military aviation
Radar altimeters are also used in military aircraft to fly quite low
over the land and the sea to avoid radar detection and targeting by
anti-aircraft guns or surface-to-air missiles. A related use of radar
altimeter technology is terrain-following radar, which allows fighter
bombers to fly at very low altitudes.
Conclusion
In conclusion, radio altimeters are indispensable instruments in aviation and space
exploration, contributing to safety and successful mission execution. Despite their
limitations, their continuous evolution and advancements are likely to mitigate these issues
and expand their applications.

With the integration of advanced technologies and strict regulatory measures, radio
altimeters will continue to provide precise altitude data for a variety of vehicles, from
traditional aircraft to autonomous vehicles and drones. The future certainly looks bright for
these vital navigation devices.
Thanks for your attention