Basic Electromagnetism

PYU1161

Unit I

1
Learning goals
 Introduce basics of static electricity and related theories.
 Study on magnetic effect of current and alternating
current theory.
 Acquire knowledge to follow physics courses in
electricity and electromagnetism at higher levels.

2
 Session 1
Electric Charge and Coulomb’s Law
Electricity in Materials

Materials can be charged by rubbing with some other

material.
Materials like glass, ebonite and plastic which are
insulators can be charged easily by this method.
Metals like conductors can be charged by friction only
when they are held with an insulator.
 Study of electric charge at rest in materials is the subject
called electrostatics.
3
 Positive and Negative Electricity

 The bodies charged with same kind of electricity repel

each other, while bodies charged with different kind of
electricity attract.

Example:
When an Amber rod rubbed with fur and glass rod
rubbed with silk brought closer, they attract each other.
The charge on Amber was labeled negative electricity
and charge on Glass was labeled positive electricity.
4
Electronics Structure of Matter

 Protons are tightly fixed in the nucleus and only electrons are
free to move in an atom.
 By removing electrons any substance can be positively
charge and by adding more electrons substance can
negatively charged.
5
 There are two types of forces that hold the atom together,

1. Nuclear force
2. Electrical Force
 The nucleons (neutrons and protons) are attracted to one
another by nuclear forces.
 The electrical forces keep negative electrons and positive
nucleus attracted to each other.
 Nuclear forces that act on short range are stronger than
electrical forces, so that the nuclear remains stable.

6
Fundamental Forces in
Nature Force Interactive Body
1. Gravitational Force Massive Objects
2. Electromagnetic Force Charged Bodies
(Electric + Magnetic)
3. Strong Force Nucleons
4. Weak Force Radio Active Decay particles

Methods of Charging
1. Electrification of a body by friction
2. Electrification of a body by induction and
3. Electrification of a body by conduction.

7
Electrification of Matter by Friction

This series substances are

arranged in the order of
increasing electron affinity
in the forward direction.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B92op3
Me0r4

8
Electrification of Matter by Induction

9
Electrification of Matter by Conduction

10
Summary of Electrification Methods
Charging Method Charging Object
1. Charge by Friction Metals and Insulators
Only Metals (With Charged
2. Charge by Induction Insulator)
Only Metals (With Charged
3. Charge by Conduction Conductor)

11
Conservation of Charge
 Conservation of charge is stated as “electric charge can
neither be created nor destroyed”.

Coulomb’s Law of Electrostatic Force

12
Session 2
Electric Field and Lines of Force
Concept of Electric Field

 Concept of field is used to explain interaction of two bodies

which are not in contact or separated by a finite distance.
 When the interacting bodies are two static charges separated by
finite distance, the field that sets up is called electrostatic field
or simply electric field.
 One of the charges set up electrostatic field, which acts on the
other charge to produce the force between them.

13
Mediators of Force Fields

Force Mediator
1. Gravitational Force Graviton
2. Electromagnetic Force Photon
3. Strong Force Gluon
4. Weak Force Boson

14
Electric Field Intensity

When test charge qo is placed in an electric field E, Force

F act on that charge is given by,
F = q 0E
The electric field intensity E at any point is defined as
the force experienced by a unit positive charge placed at
that point.

Electric field E can be written as

15
Lines of Force

 An electric line of force is a line drawn tangent to the

electric field at any point, which shows the direction of
the electric field intensity at that point.
 The number of lines of force coming out from a charge is
proportional to the magnitude of that charge.
 The lines of force always starts from a positive charge
and terminated on negative charge and continuous in
between the two charges.
 Magnitude of electric field at a point is propotional to
number of line of force per unit area normal to the field at
that point.

16
 The lines of force for an isolated positively charged
sphere

The lines of force for a uniform sheet of infinite length,

carrying a positively charged

17
18
 The lines of force of pair of Positive charges

The lines of force of pair of Positive and negative

charges

19
The Principle of Superposition

 At any point P, the total electric field due to a group of

source charges equals the vector sum of electric fields of
all the charges,

20
The Principle of Superposition Cont …

 If the charge distribution is continuous, the resultant

electric field E is given by,

21
Field of an Electric Dipole

 A pair of equal and opposite point charges separated by a vector

distance r is called electric dipole.
 The direction of r is always from the negative charge to the
positive charge.
Animation showing the
electric field of an electric
dipole. The dipole consists of
two point electric charges of
opposite polarity located close
together. A transformation
from a point-shaped dipole to
a finite-size electric dipole is
shown.
22
 Electric field at a point R along the axis, distance c from the mid point
of the line joining the two charges or electric field at point P distance b
perpendicularly along the mid point of r is given by (For b = c and b/c
>> r),

ER

c
Where P = 2rq
+q
P
b
r
θ
E2 E1
-q
E
23
Dipole in an Electric Field

Dipole consists of two equal

and opposite charges +Q
and –Q separated by a
distance l and let its dipole
moment be P. If the electric
field is E, then the torque, τ
is given by
τ = PE sinθ

This can be written as vector

cross product
τ = P^E
24
Session 3
Electric Flux and Gauss’ Theorem
Electric Flux
 The number of lines of force passing through any
hypothetical surface placed in a field measures the flux
through that surface.

 Why Electric flux is a scalar and electric field is a vector?

25
The electric flux dФ through this surface element is given by,

This can be written as vector dot product,

The total flux through the entire surface is given by,

We can write it in integral form as,

26
Sign of Flux
 When electric field is directed outwards the surface-  is positive
 When electric field is directed inwards the surface-  is negative
 When electric field parallel to the surface-  is zero

Thus surfaces are chosen either normal or parallel to the electric

field to simplify the problem.
27
Flux through a Closed Surface of charge q
If the radius of the
r S sphere is r, the value of
q the electric field E
S’
everywhere on its
surface is given by,

Total flux through the

surface is given by,

28
Gauss’ Theorem

This theorem states that the outward flux, Ф through a

hypothetical closed geometrical surface, which we
normally call Gaussian surface, is always equal to Q/ε0,
Where Q is the algebraic sum of all charges enclosed by
the closed surface and ε0 is the permittivity of free space.
Mathematically this is written as,

29
Derivation of Gauss’ Theorem
This theorem is nothing but the combination of
coulomb’s law and superposition principle.


1 =  E1 . ds =
 q1
4 0 r1
2  ds Coulomb’s Law
   
E  E1  E2  ....................  En
Principle of superposition

qn
q3 S
r1
q1 S1
q2

30
Applications of Gauss’ Theorem

Selection Rules of Gaussian Surface

1. The Gaussian surface should be selected in such away that
the electric field is of same magnitude over all the points of
the surface.
2. The Gaussian surface should be normal to the electric field or
parallel with it.

Possible Gaussian surfaces

1. Sphere
2. Cylinder
3. Box
31
Verification of Coulomb’s Law

In this case the most significant Gaussian surface is a

sphere of radius r centered on the charge as shown in the
following figure.

Therefore the flux Ф through the surface is given by,

32
But . Therefore,

The force F on a test charge q0 placed at a distance r from

q is given by,

That is,

33
The field of an Isolated Spherically Symmetric Charge
Distribution (Non conducting sphere)

The electric field E any where outside the surface of a

sphere of radius r, When R > r,
R
r

When R < r,

Where  is the charge per unit volume

34
 The Field Inside a Conductor E
Gaussian
surface S

Conductor

E=0

 The net electric charge of a conductor resides entirely on

its surface.
 Therefore the electric field inside the conductor is zero.

 The field strength outside a conductor is given by,

35
The Field Due to an Infinite Line of Charge

 The flux through the two ends of the cylinder is zero

because the electric field is tangential to them.
Therefore,

 The direction of E is radially outward everywhere.

36
The Field Due to an Infinite Sheet of Charge

The electric field strength of infinite sheet of charge is

given by,

37
 The Field Due to Two Parallel Sheet with Equal and
Opposite Charges

The electric field between the sheets is given by,

Field outside, E = 0
38
Session 4
Electric Potential
Work and Potential Energy

 Certain fields may store the work done in

the form of energy. The energy that a body
gain because of its position is called
potential energy.
 The amount of work done on the body in
this manner when moving from one point to
another was identified as the change in
potential energy of the system.
 The work done or the change in potential
energy is independent of the path chosen
and depends only on the end points. 39
 Electric Potential Energy

 When a charge is placed in an electric field it gains electric

potential energy.
 Potential energy difference between the two points P and Q
as,
E

P
Q
- qE

dl
qE
Electric Potential

 The electric potential is define as the potential energy

difference per unit positive charge.

40
Absolute Electric Potential

 The absolute electric potential at any point in an electric field

is defined as the work done per unit positive charge to move
that charge from infinity to the point of interest.
Therefore,

 Superposition principal can be applied to the electric potential

as well.
Therefore,

We can write it in integral form as,

41
Equipotential Surfaces in Electric Field

 A equipotential surface is define as a surface consisting of

points all of which are at the same potential.
 The potential difference between any two points on this
surface is zero.
Therefore VQ = VP and WQP = 0
 The electric field lines are perpendicular to the equipotential
surface every where.

42
Conservative Nature of the Electric Field
P h Path I a Q
f l c E
g b
e d

Path II

We obtain the work done to move a test charge from Q to P

using path I,

Work is done along the parallel elements to the electric field. No

work is done along the elements in right angle to electric field.
We obtain the work done to move a test charge from Q to P
using path II, P   P P
WQ  P    qE. dl  q  E cos 0 dl  q E  dl  qEl
Q Q Q 43
Electric Potential and Field Strength
Q
q0 E
θ
dl

P
d

Uniform electric field between the points Q and P is E and the

potential difference between two points is given by,

By considering three- dimensional space considering x, y and z

co-ordinates,  v v v 
E   i  j k 
 x y z 

We can obtain, 
   i 
  
j  k 
 x y z 
44
Session 5
Dielectrics
Dielectrics in Atomic Point of View

The displacement of charge due to an applied electric field in

dielectric materials is called polarization of matter.

_ _ _
+ + +
_ _
+ +
_ _ _
+ + +
_ _ _
+ + +

45
 Charge displacement upon
external excitation from an
electric field. That displacement
from the equilibrium position is
what creates polarization on
materials, and changes the
internal field from equilibrium.

There are three kinds of possible contributions to the

polarization of matter.
1. Electronic polarizability
2. Ionic polarizability
3. Dipolar polarizability

46
Electronic Polarizability

In the presence of an external electric field the center of mass

of electron cloud tends to move relative to the positively
charged nucleus as shown in following,

Suppose the charge

displacement is dx, then
the atom will acquire a
dipole moment P given
by,

P = e dx

47
Ionic Polarizability

When such a crystal (CsCl, NaCl, etc.,) is subjected to an

electric field, the ions themselves get slightly displaced to
produce dipoles and in addition the electronic polarization also
takes place as electronic polarization.

+ - + - + - + - + -

- + - + - + - + - + E0

+ - + - + - + - + -

(a) Absence of E field (b) Presence of E field

48
Dipolar Polarizability

An atoms or molecules, which become polarized when

acted upon by an external electric field is called dipolar
polarization.
The molecules are with a permanent electric dipole
moment, which called polar molecules. Such as water.

With field

49
Polarizability in Alternating Field & Relative
Contribution
 polarization of a body depends on the frequency of the
applied field and this dependence can be explained in
terms of the inertia of the body.
Dipolar polarization- 1010 Hz
Ionic Polarization- 1013 Hz (Microwave region)
Electronic polarization- 1015 Hz (UV region)
Highest contribution is from the dipole polarization of
materials since the charge separation is large.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XSEvkJpP8T4

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50
 𝑞 𝑞 =qdx
𝐸 𝑜 𝐴= 𝐸 𝐴=
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑜

𝐸=
𝐸𝑜 𝐸 𝑜=𝐸 𝜀𝑟 𝑃=𝑛 𝑝
𝜀 𝑟❑
==

∫ 𝑃 .𝑑𝑠=𝑞𝑝❑ 51
 𝑞−𝑞𝑝 1
∮ 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑠= 𝜀 = 𝜀 [ 𝑞−∫ 𝑃 . 𝑑𝑠 ]
𝑜 𝑜

∮ (𝜀¿¿𝑜 𝐸 +𝑃) 𝑑𝑠=¿𝑞¿¿

52
 =

∮ 𝐷.𝑑𝑠=𝑞𝑞
𝐷=
𝑞
𝐴

𝐸 𝑜 𝐴=
𝜀𝑜 𝐷=𝜀𝑜 𝐸 𝑜

= =

=
𝜀𝑟 =1+ 𝜒

53
Induced Surface Charge Density

The alignment of dipole moments of the molecules in

presence of an external electric field form thin surface layer of
positive charge on one end and negative charge on the other
end of the material. The induced charge is called induced
surface charge.
Let polarization charge as qP and the element of surface area
as ds, then the surface charge density 𝝈P is defined as,
- +
- +
E0 - E’ +
- +
- E +
- +
 Field
 Induced Electric  -q- +
+qp
E  E E
p

o
54
The Polarization Vector

Suppose that all polarized molecules have the

same dipole moment and there are n such
molecules per unit volume, we define a new -q +q

vector field termed the polarization vector

 
where Pnp

and is the dipole moment per unit volume. E0 P

qd q dq p
P  p σp 
Ad A ds
dx

A
The surface integral of dipole moment is equal -P
to surface induced charge qP.
d

55
Electric Susceptibility

The electric susceptibility at any point is defined as the ratio

of the polarization at that point to the electric field intensity at
that point. That is,

Dielectric Constant

When dielectric material is placed in an electric field E0 and the

effective field is E, then dielectric constant εr is defined as the
ratio of E0 to E. That is,

56
Electric Displacement Vector

Displacement vector is defined as, -

-
+
+
P +
E0 + -
- +
-
q q
- E +
- +
- +
-qp +qp

The relation between the dielectric constant and electric

susceptibility with the simple equation,

εr = (1 + χ)

57
Origination of E, P, D & E0

• E is the field in the dielectric due to total charge
(q - qp) per unit area.  (q  q p )
E 
0 A


P is the surface charge per unit area of bound
charge (qp).  qp
P 
A

D is the surface charge per unit area of free
 q
charge (q). D 
A


E0 is the field in vacuum due to free charge (+q)
 q
per unit area. E0 
0 A
58
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XSEvkJpP8T4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YKTZ6oWdSnI

59
Session 6
Capacitors
Capacitance of Conductors

Capacitance C is defined as the amount of electricity in

coulombs required to raise the potential of the conductor by
one volt.
That is
Q = CV

Capacitance of a spherical body of radius r with charge q is

given by,
C = 4πε0r
60
Capacitors

The arrangement of great practical importance is the devices

involving two conducting bodies placed close to each other,
which are known as capacitors.

61
Parallel Plate Capacitor

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by,

62
According to the field
intensity formula, the smaller
you make the distance
between the plates, the
stronger the electric field
becomes if the potential
difference is held constant.

63
Cylindrical Capacitor

The capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor is given by,

64
 Faraday's Ice Pail E
The capacitance between two concentric xperiment
thin spherical conductors of radii a and b
(a<b) with,
(a) Outer conductor earthed,

(b) Inner conductor earthed,

65
Dielectric Theory Applied to Capacitors

Capacitance when a dielectric material is inserted between the

plates of capacitors,

66
Combination of Capacitors

There are two types of combination of capacitors,

1. Parallel combination
2. Serial combination

67
Capacitors in Parallel
Equivalent capacitance of parallel
combination is given by,

Capacitors in Series
Equivalent capacitance of serial
combination is given by,

Energy Storage in Capacitors

Energy storage in capacitor is given by,
or
68
The force of Attraction between the Plate of a Parallel
Plate Capacitor

The force between the plates is given by,

This animation helps illustrate that no matter

where a charge is placed between to oppositely
charged parallel plates, the net force is the
same. Notice that the sum of the force from
the top plate and the force from the bottom
plate always equals the same amount.

69
Session 7
Current Electricity and Ohm’s Law
Conductors, Insulators and Semi Conductors

The materials have free electron to move throughout the

body. Such materials called conductors.
The materials have practically no free electrons and they
oppose the conduction of electricity. Such materials called
insulators.
The materials, which intermediate in behavior between
conductors and insulators called semiconductors.

70
 Electric Current and Current
Density

Electric current through any

cross-sectional area of a
conductor is defined
quantitatively as the net charge
flowing across that area per unit
time in the direction of the electric
field.
That is,

Current density is defined as the

current carrying conductor over
the entire cross-section area.
That is, 71
Microscopic View of Electric Conductivity in Metals

72
Drift Velocity

The drift velocity is the average velocity that a particle, such

as an electron, attains due to an electric field.

The drift velocity is given by,

Current density is given by,

73
Ohm’s Law

“The current passing through a conductor is directly

proportional to the potential difference between its two ends,
provided the physical conditions (such as temperature) of the
conductor remain unchanged.”
Thus

Where G is a constant of proportionality and is known as

conductance of the conductor, G is written as I/R, the constant
R is known as resistance of the conductor,
Since

74
Resistivity and Conductivity

The resistance R of an ohmic conductor is a macroscopic

property and depends upon length, l and area of cross-section,
A of the conductor. For a given material maintained at constant
temperature.
That is
or
Where, ρ is a constant of proportionality and known as specific
resistance or resistivity of the material.

The reciprocal of resistivity ρ is called the specific

conductance or electrical conductivity σ,
That is
75
Ohm’s Law in terms of E and J
Take current, I potential difference V
and resistance R of a conductor. For
homogenous materials it may also be
expressed in terms of current density J
and electric field E. Consider a linear
conductor with uniform cross-section
area a length l, as shown in figure.

If J and E are parallel to each other, We

may write in vector form
E = ρJ or J = σE
Relationship between displacement
vector D and electric field E is given
by,
76
Variation of resistance and resistivity with temperature

Rt = R0 [1+α(t-t0)]

Where, R0 is the resistance at a reference temperature t0 and

Rt is the resistance at any temperature t. α is the temperature
coefficient of resistivity of the conductor.

We can write above equation in another way,

ρt = ρ0 [1+α(t-t0)]

Here ρt is the resistivity at temperature t and ρ0 is the

resistance at temperature t0.

77
Session 8
Electrical Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Laws
Resistors in Series and in
Parallel

Resistors in Series
Equivalent resistance R of the
combination is given by,
R = R 1 + R2 + R3

Resistors in Parallel
Equivalent resistance R of the
combination is given by,
78
Simple Electrical Circuits
In order to have a steady current in a conductor two things must
be satisfied.
1. Potential difference must be maintained in the conductor.
2. The charges that have passed through the conductor must be
continually returned to their starting point, to enable them to
pass through the conductor again.
 Steady current can exist only in a closed circuit.
 No current will flow in a open circuit.

79
Electromotive Force
The energy of the cell decreases and after sometime it would be
exhausted and this condition is called a dead cell.
Chemical energy can be completely recovered and cell can be
brought to its initial state. This process is called charging of the
cell.
Any device in which a transformation of energy to electric
energy form any other form of energy takes place is called a seat
of electromotive force. Ex: The electric cell
A cell, maintains a potential difference between its terminals
even when a current flows across them. Such a potential
difference is called the electromotive force, E (e.m.f)
The energy is defined by the work done per unit positive
charge,
80
Internal Resistance of a Cell

The materials in the cell are conductors and that they too
posses a resistance. This is called the internal resistance, r of
the cell.
The value of r does not remain constant. As the cell is used its
value increases with time.
Potential difference between the two terminals, known as the
terminal voltage of the cell is not always equal to e.m.f.
Terminal voltage, V is always less than the e.m.f E of a cell
when a current I drawn from it. It is given by,
V = E - Ir
When electrons are forced into the cell in a direction opposite
to that in which they would normally flow, In this case
V = E + Ir 81
Power Generated an Electric Circuits

The power P is given by,

P = VI or P = I2 R or P = V2 /R
The above equation states that R is a constant independent of
current I and the rate of development of heat is directly
proportional to the square of the current. This law is known as
Joules Law.

The Circuit Equation

E = IR E r

82
Arrangements of Cells
Cells in series

The equation of this arrangement is

given by,

Cells in parallel

The equation of this arrangement is

given by,

83
Mixed combination of the cells

The equation of this arrangement

is given by,

84
Kirchhoff’s Laws
First law

The algebraic sum of the currents

entering any junction point in a circuit
is zero. (at a junction point)

Second law

The algebraic sum of the e.m.f’s in a

closed electric path (loop) in a circuit
is equal to the algebraic sum of the
products of current and resistance (IR),
for each circuit element in the loop.
85
Cyclic Loop Current

To solve network problems, in which more than two loops

are involved by this method. There are certain called
Superposition, Thevenin, Norton etc.

86
Ammeters and Voltmeters
Ammeters

To measure currents in circuits we have to connect ammeters

in series in the circuit.
To have no alteration of current in the resistance of the
ammeter is very much small.
Here the range of the galvanometer is limited only to measure
up to 1mA.

87
Voltmeters

To measure voltages in circuits we have to connect voltmeters

across the points where voltage needs to be measured in the
circuit.
To have no alteration of current in the resistance of the
voltmeter is infinitely large.

88
The Wheatstone Bridge

The equation for the balance of

the Wheatstone bridge is,

89