CPE 311 – Computer Programming II

Department of Computer Engineering

School of Engineering and Engineering Technology (SEET)
Federal University of Technology Minna, Niger State.
 CONTROL STATEMENTS
Basically in C , we have Three Control Structure and Seven Control Statements
namely

 SEQUENCE STRUCTURE

 SELECTION STRUCTURE (3 TYPES: if, if-else, switch) Branching Control

 REPTITION STRUCTURE (3 TYPES: while, do-while, for) Repetition control

SEQUENCE: These structures are built in the C-program or compiler. The

execution of programs one after the other in the order in which they were written is
the called the sequential execution.
Control Structures I

Selection: else/if and switch

3
Introduction

 Before writing a program

 Have a thorough understanding of problem

 Carefully plan your approach for solving it

 While writing a program

 Know what “building blocks” are available

 Use good programming principles

4
Algorithms
 Computing problems
 Solved by executing a series of actions in a specific

order
 Algorithm is a procedure determining
 Actions to be executed

 Order to be executed

 Example: recipe , rise and shine

 Program control
 Specifies the order in which statements are executed

5
Algorithm: This is a procedure for solving a problem in terms
of the ACTIONS to be executed and the ORDER in which
these actions are to be executed.

Program Control: this is the order in which the statement in a

computer program is been executed.

Pseudo code: is an artificial and informal language that helps

you develop Algorithms. This codes are similar to our every
English, convenient and user friendly, however they are not the
actual computer program codes.
Pseudocode
 Pseudocode
 Artificial, informal language used to develop

algorithms
 Similar to everyday English

 Not executed on computers

 Used to think out program before coding

 Easy to convert into C++ program

 Only executable statements

 No need to declare variables

7
Control Structures
 3 control structures
 Sequence structure

 Programs executed sequentially by default

 Transfer of control

 Next statement executed not next one in sequence

 Selection structures
 if, if/else, switch

 Repetition structures
 while, do/while, for

8
Control Structures
 C++ keywords
 Cannot be used as identifiers or variable names
C ++ Ke yw o rd s

Keywords common to the

C and C++ programming
languages
auto break case char const
continue default do double else
enum extern float for goto
if int long register return
short signed sizeof static struct
switch typedef union unsigned void
volatile while
C++ only keywords
asm bool catch class const_cast
delete dynamic_cast explicit false friend
inline mutable namespace new operator
private protected public reinterpret_cast
static_cast template this throw true
try typeid typename using virtual
wchar_t

9
Control Structures
 Flowchart
 Graphical representation of an algorithm

 Special-purpose symbols connected by arrows (flowlines)

 Rectangle symbol (action symbol)

 Any type of action

 Oval symbol

 Beginning or end of a program, or a section of code

(circles)
 Single-entry/single-exit control structures
 Connect exit point of one to entry point of the next

 Control structure stacking

10
if Selection Structure
 Selection structure
 Choose among alternative courses of action

 Pseudocode example:

If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60

Print “Passed”
 If the condition is true

 Print statement executed, program continues to next statement

 If the condition is false

 Print statement ignored, program continues

 Indenting makes programs easier to read

 C++ ignores whitespace characters (tabs, spaces, etc.)

11
if Selection Structure
 Translation into C++
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”

if ( grade >= 60 )
cout << "Passed";
 Diamond symbol (decision symbol)
 Indicates decision is to be made

 Contains an expression that can be true or false

 Test condition, follow path

 if structure
 Single-entry/single-exit

12
if Selection Structure

 Flowchart of pseudocode statement

A decision can be made on
any expression.

true zero - false

grade >= 60 print “Passed”
nonzero - true
Example:
false
3 - 4 is true

13
if/else Selection Structure
 if
 Performs action if condition true
 if/else
 Different actions if conditions true or false

 Pseudocode
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
print “Passed”
else
print “Failed”
 C++ code
if ( grade >= 60 )
cout << "Passed";
else
cout << "Failed";

14
2.6 if/else Selection Structure
 Nested if/else structures
 One inside another, test for multiple cases
 Once condition met, other statements skipped
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 90
Print “A”
else
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 80
Print “B”
else
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 70
Print “C”
else
if student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “D”
else
Print “F”

15
2.6 if/else Selection Structure

 Example
if ( grade >= 90 ) // 90 and above
cout << "A";
else if ( grade >= 80 ) // 80-89
cout << "B";
else if ( grade >= 70 ) // 70-79
cout << "C";
else if ( grade >= 60 ) // 60-69
cout << "D";
else // less than 60
cout << "F";

16
Importance of Curly Braces
 Print “We have a problem” if examGrade < 60
 Print “We have a real problem” if examGrade < 60 and
quizGrade < 10
 Print “Ok” if examGrade >= 60

int examGrade, quizGrade;

if (examGrade < 60)
cout << “We have a problem” << endl;
if (quizGrade < 10)
cout << “We have a real problem” << endl;
else
cout << “Ok”;

17
Exam Grade Flowchart int examGrade, quizGrade;
if (examGrade < 60)
cout << “We have a problem” << endl;
if (quizGrade < 10)
cout << “We have a real problem” << endl;
else
cout << “Ok”;
true
examGrade < 60

“We have a problem”

false true
quizGrade < 10

“Ok” “We have a real problem”

18
 Writing Cases
 Print “We have a problem” if examGrade < 60
 Print “We have a real problem” if examGrade < 60 and
quizGrade < 10
 Print “Ok” if examGrade >= 60
examGrade < 60 quizGrade < 10 Action
Case 1 true false “We have a problem”
Case 2 true true “We have a problem” and
“We have a real problem”
Case 3 false true/false “Ok”

19
 Putting it all together
examGrade < 60 quizGrade < 10 Action
Case 1 true false “We have a problem”
Case 2 true true “We have a problem” and
“We have a real problem”
Case 3 false true/false “Ok”

int examGrade,quizGrade;
int examGrade, quizGrade;
if (examGrade
(examGrade< <60)
60) {
System.out.println(“We have a problem”);
cout << “We have a problem” << endl;
if (quizGrade < 10)
if (quizGrade < 10)
System.out.printl(“We have a real problem”);
cout << “We have a real problem” << endl;
else
} System.out.println(“Ok”);
else
cout << “Ok”;

20
boolean Operators
 Combines multiple boolean expressions
 If person’s age greater than or equal to 13 and less
than 17, he can go to G and PG-13 rated movies,
but not R rated movies
 if (age >= 13 && age < 17)
cout << “You can go to G and PG-13”
<< “ rated movies, but not R” +
<< “ rated movies.”) << endl;
 boolean operators
 and - && (true if all conditions are true)
 or - || (true if one condition is true)
 not - ! (true if conditions is false)

21
Expression Combinations
The && (and) operator
operand1 operand2 operand1 && operand2 Let age = 17
true true true
true false false
Let age = 16
false true false
false false false

Let age = 12

if (age >= 13 && age < 17)

cout << “You can go to G and PG-13”
<< “ rated movies, but not R” +
<< “ rated movies.” << endl;

22
Expression Combinations
The || (or) operator
operand1 operand2 operand1 || operand2
true true true
true false true
false true true
false false false

Example
The ! (not) operator if ( !( grade == sentinelValue ) )
operand !operand cout << "The next grade is "
<< grade << endl;
true false
Alternative:
false true if ( grade != sentinelValue )
cout << "The next grade is "
<< grade << endl;

23
24
25
 switch Multiple-Selection Structure
 switch
 Test variable for multiple values

 Series of case labels and optional default case

switch ( variable ) {
case value1: // taken if variable == value1
statements
break; // necessary to exit switch

case value2:
case value3: // taken if variable == value2 or == value3
statements
break;

default: // taken if variable matches no other cases

statements
break;
}

26
switch Multiple-Selection Structure

true
case a case a action(s) break

false

true
case b case b action(s) break
false

.
.
.

true
case z case z action(s) break
false

default action(s)

27
Converting if/else to a switch
switch (rank)
{
if (rank == JACK) case JACK:
cout << "Jack"; cout << "Jack";
break;
else if (rank == QUEEN) case QUEEN:
cout << "Queen"; cout << "Queen";
break;
else if (rank == KING; case KING:
cout << "King"; cout << "King";
break;
else if (rank == ACE) case ACE:
cout << "Ace"; cout << "Ace";
break;
else default:
cout << rank; cout << rank;
}

28
Control Structures II

while, for, and do/while loops

29
while Repetition Structure
 Repetition structure
 Action repeated while some condition remains true

 Psuedocode

while there are more items on my shopping list

Purchase next item and cross it off my list
 while loop repeated until condition becomes false
 Example
int product = 2;
while ( product <= 1000 )
product = 2 * product;

30
The while Repetition Structure

 Flowchart of while loop

true
product <= 1000 product = 2 * product

false

31
Formulating Algorithms (Counter-Controlled
Repetition)

 Counter-controlled repetition
 Loop repeated until counter reaches certain value
 Definite repetition
 Number of repetitions known
 Example
A class of ten students took a quiz. The grades (integers
in the range 0 to 100) for this quiz are available to you.
Determine the class average on the quiz.

32
Formulating Algorithms (Counter-Controlled
Repetition)

 Pseudocode for example:

Set total to zero
Set grade counter to zero
While grade counter is less than ten
Input the next grade
Add the grade into the total
Add one to the grade counter
Set the class average to the total divided by ten
Print the class average

 Next: C++ code for this example

33
1 // Class average program with counter-controlled repetition.
2
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8
const int MAX_GRADES = 10;
9 // function main begins program execution
10 int main()
11 {
12 int total; // sum of grades input by user
13 int gradeCounter; // number of grade to be entered next
14 int grade; // grade value
15 int average; // average of grades
16
17 // initialization phase
18 total = 0; // initialize total
19 gradeCounter = 0; // initialize loop counter
20

34
21 // processing phase
22 while ( gradeCounter < MAX_GRADES ) { // loop MAX_GRADES times
23 cout << "Enter grade: "; // prompt for input
24 cin >> grade; // read grade from user
25 total = total + grade; // add grade to total
26 gradeCounter = gradeCounter + 1; // increment counter
27 }
28
29 // termination phase
30 average = total / MAX_GRADES; // integer division
31
32 // display result
33 cout << "Class average is " << average << endl;
34
35 return 0; // indicate program ended successfully
36
37 } // end function main

35
Enter grade: 98
Enter grade: 76
Enter grade: 71
Enter grade: 87
Enter grade: 83
Enter grade: 90
Enter grade: 57
Enter grade: 79
Enter grade: 82
Enter grade: 94
Class average is 81

36
Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-Controlled
Repetition)
 Suppose problem becomes:
Develop a class-averaging program that will process an
arbitrary number of grades each time the program is run
 Unknown number of students

 How will program know when to end?

 Sentinel value
 Indicates “end of data entry”

 Loop ends when sentinel input

 Sentinel chosen so it cannot be confused with regular input

 -1 in this case

37
Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-Controlled
Repetition)

 Top-down, stepwise refinement

 Begin with pseudocode representation of top
Determine the class average for the quiz
 Divide top into smaller tasks, list in order
Initialize variables
Input, sum and count the quiz grades
Calculate and print the class average

38
Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-Controlled
Repetition)

 Many programs have three phases

 Initialization
 Initializes the program variables
 Processing
 Input data, adjusts program variables
 Termination
 Calculate and print the final results
 Helps break up programs for top-down refinement

39
Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-Controlled
Repetition)

 Refine the initialization phase

Initialize variables
goes to
Initialize total to zero
Initialize counter to zero
 Processing
Input, sum and count the quiz grades
goes to
Input the first grade (possibly the sentinel)
While the user has not as yet entered the sentinel
Add this grade into the running total
Add one to the grade counter
Input the next grade (possibly the sentinel)

40
Formulating Algorithms (Sentinel-Controlled
Repetition)

 Termination
Calculate and print the class average
goes to
If the counter is not equal to zero
Set the average to the total divided by the counter
Print the average
Else
Print “No grades were entered”
 Next: partial C++ program

41
 Counter-controlled loop
21 // processing phase
22 while ( gradeCounter < MAX_GRADES ) { // loop MAX_GRADES times
23 cout << "Enter grade: "; // prompt for input
24 cin >> grade; // read grade from user
25 total = total + grade; // add grade to total
26 gradeCounter = gradeCounter + 1; // increment counter
27 }

 Sentinel-controlled (event-controlled) loop

13 const int SENTINEL = -1;

27 // processing phase
28 // get first grade from user
29 cout << "Enter grade, “ << SENTINEL << “ to end: "; // prompt for input
30 cin >> grade; // read grade from user
31
32 // loop until sentinel value read from user
33 while ( grade != SENTINEL ) {
34 total = total + grade; // add grade to total
35 gradeCounter = gradeCounter + 1; // increment counter
36
37 cout << "Enter grade, “ << SENTINEL << ” to end: "; // prompt for input
38 cin >> grade; // read next grade
39
40 } // end while

42
3 #include <iostream>
8 using std::fixed;
9
10 #include <iomanip> // parameterized stream manipulators

11 using std::setprecision; // sets numeric output precision

49 // display average with two digits of precision

50 cout << "Class average is " << setprecision( 2 )
51 << fixed << average << endl;

Enter grade, -1 to end: 75

Enter grade, -1 to end: 94
Enter grade, -1 to end: 97
Enter grade, -1 to end: 88
Enter grade, -1 to end: 70
Enter grade, -1 to end: 64
setprecision(2)prints two digits past
Enter grade, -1 to end: 83 fixed forces outputpoint
decimal to (rounded to fit precision).
Enter grade, -1 to end: 89 print in fixed point format
Enter grade, -1 to end: -1
(not scientific notation).
Programs that use this must include
Class average is 82.50
Also, forces <iomanip>
trailing zeros
and decimal point to print.
43
 Nested Control Structures
 Problem statement
A college has a list of test results (1 = pass, 2 = fail) for
10 students. Write a program that analyzes the results.
If more than 8 students pass, print "Raise Tuition".
 Notice that
 Program processes 10 results
 Fixed number, use counter-controlled loop
 Two counters can be used
 One counts number that passed
 Another counts number that fail
 Each test result is 1 or 2
 If not 1, assume 2

44
Nested Control Structures
 Top level outline
Analyze exam results and decide if tuition should be raised
 First refinement
Initialize variables
Input the ten quiz grades and count passes and failures
Print a summary of the exam results and decide if tuition should be
raised
 Refine
Initialize variables
to
Initialize passes to zero
Initialize failures to zero
Initialize student counter to zero

45
Nested Control Structures

 Refine
Input the ten quiz grades and count passes and failures
to
While student counter is less than ten
Input the next exam result
If the student passed
Add one to passes
Else
Add one to failures
Add one to student counter

46
Nested Control Structures

 Refine
Print a summary of the exam results and decide if tuition
should be raised
to
Print the number of passes
Print the number of failures
If more than eight students passed
Print “Raise tuition”
 Program next

47
1 // Fig. 2.11: fig02_11.cpp
2 // Analysis of examination results.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8 const int MAX_STUDENTS = 10; const int MIN_PASSES = 8;
9 const int PASS = 1; const int FAIL = 2;
10 // function main begins program execution
11 int main()
12 {
13 // initialize variables in declarations
14 int passes = 0; // number of passes
15 int failures = 0; // number of failures
16 int studentCounter = 0; // student counter
17 int result; // one exam result
18
19 // process 10 students using counter-controlled loop
20 while ( studentCounter < MAX_STUDENTS ) {
21
22 // prompt user for input and obtain value from user
23 cout << "Enter result (“ << PASS << ” = pass, “ << FAIL << ” = fail): ";
24 cin >> result;
25 48
25 // if result 1, increment passes; if/else nested in while
26 if ( result == PASS ) // if/else nested in while
27 passes = passes + 1;
28
29 else // if result not 1, increment failures
30 failures = failures + 1;
31
32 // increment studentCounter so loop eventually terminates
33 studentCounter = studentCounter + 1;
34
35 } // end while
36
37 // termination phase; display number of passes and failures
38 cout << "Passed " << passes << endl;
39 cout << "Failed " << failures << endl;
40
41 // if more than eight students passed, print "raise tuition"
42 if ( passes > MIN_PASSES )
43 cout << "Raise tuition " << endl;
44
45 return 0; // successful termination
46
47 } // end function main

49
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Passed 6
Failed 4

Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1

Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 2
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Enter result (1 = pass, 2 = fail): 1
Passed 9
Failed 1
Raise tuition 50
2.11 Assignment Operators
 Assignment expression abbreviations
 Addition assignment operator
c = c + 3; abbreviated to
c += 3;
 Statements of the form
variable = variable operator expression;
can be rewritten as
variable operator= expression;
 Other assignment operators
d -= 4 (d = d - 4)
e *= 5 (e = e * 5)
f /= 3 (f = f / 3)
g %= 9 (g = g % 9)

51
2.12 Increment and Decrement
Operators
 Increment operator (++) - can be used instead of c += 1
 Decrement operator (--) - can be used instead of c -= 1
 Preincrement
 When the operator is used before the variable (++c or –
c)
 Variable is changed, then the expression it is in is
evaluated.
 Postincrement
 When the operator is used after the variable (c++ or
c--)
 Expression the variable is in executes, then the variable
is changed.
52
2.12 Increment and Decrement
Operators
 Increment operator (++)
 Increment variable by one
 c++
 Same as c += 1
 Decrement operator (--) similar
 Decrement variable by one
 c--

53
2.12 Increment and Decrement
Operators
 Preincrement
 Variable changed before used in expression
 Operator before variable (++c or --c)
 Postincrement
 Incremented changed after expression
 Operator after variable (c++, c--)

54
2.12 Increment and Decrement
Operators
 If c = 5, then
 cout << ++c;
 c is changed to 6, then printed out
 cout << c++;
 Prints out 5 (cout is executed before the increment.
 c then becomes 6

55
2.12 Increment and Decrement
Operators
 When variable not in expression
 Preincrementing and postincrementing have
same effect
++c;
cout << c;
and
c++;
cout << c;

are the same

56
1 // Fig. 2.14: fig02_14.cpp
2 // Preincrementing and postincrementing. fig02_14.cp
3 #include <iostream>
4 p
5
6
using std::cout;
using std::endl;
(1 of 2)
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 int c; // declare variable
12
13 // demonstrate postincrement
14 c = 5; // assign 5 to c
15 cout << c << endl; // print 5
16 cout << c++ << endl; // print 5 then postincrement
17 cout << c << endl << endl; // print 6
18
19 // demonstrate preincrement
20 c = 5; // assign 5 to c
21 cout << c << endl; // print 5
22 cout << ++c << endl; // preincrement then print 6
23 cout << c << endl; // print 6

57
24
25 return 0; // indicate successful termination
26
27 } // end function main

5
5
6

5
6
6

58
Essentials of Counter-Controlled
Repetition
 Counter-controlled repetition requires
 Name of control variable/loop counter
 Initial value of control variable
 Condition to test for final value
 Increment/decrement to modify control variable
when looping

59
1 // Fig. 2.16: fig02_16.cpp
2 // Counter-controlled repetition.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 int counter = 1; // initialization
12
13 while ( counter <= 10 ) { // repetition condition
14 cout << counter << endl; // display counter
15 ++counter; // increment
16
17 } // end while
18
19 return 0; // indicate successful termination
20
21 } // end function main 60
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

61
Essentials of Counter-Controlled
Repetition
 The declaration
int counter = 1;
 Names counter
 Declares counter to be an integer
 Reserves space for counter in memory
 Sets counter to an initial value of 1

62
 for Repetition Structure
 General format when using for loops
for ( initialization; LoopContinuationTest;
increment )
statement
 Example
for( int counter = 1; counter <= 10;
counter++ )
cout << counter << endl; No
semicolo
 Prints integers from one to ten n after
last
statement

63
for Repetition Structure
 for loops can usually be rewritten as while
loops
initialization;
while ( loopContinuationTest){
statement
increment;
}
 Initialization and increment
 For multiple variables, use comma-separated lists
for (int i = 0, j = 0; j + i <= 10; j++,
i++)
cout << j + i << endl;
64
1 // Fig. 2.20: fig02_20.cpp
2 // Summation with for.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 int sum = 0; // initialize sum
12
13 // sum even integers from 2 through 100
14 for ( int number = 2; number <= 100; number += 2 )
15 sum += number; // add number to sum
16
17 cout << "Sum is " << sum << endl; // output sum
18 return 0; // successful termination
19
20 } // end function main

Sum is 2550 65
Examples Using the for Structure
 Vary the control variable from 1 to 100 in increments of 1
 Vary the control variable from 100 to 1 in increments of -
1(decrements of 1)
 Vary the control variable from 7 to 77 in steps of 7
 Vary the control variable from 20 to 2 in steps of -2
 Vary the control variable over the following sequence: 2, 5, 8, 11,
14, 17, 20
 Vary the control variable over the following sequence: 99, 88, 77,
66, 55, 44, 33, 22, 11, 0

66
Examples Using the for Structure

 Program to calculate compound interest

 A person invests $1000.00 in a savings account yielding 5
percent interest. Assuming that all interest is left on deposit in the
account, calculate and print the amount of money in the account
at the end of each year for 10 years. Use the following formula
for determining these amounts:
a = p(1+r)n
 p is the original amount invested (i.e., the principal),
r is the annual interest rate,
n is the number of years and
a is the amount on deposit at the end of the nth year

67
1 // Fig. 2.21: fig02_21.cpp
2 // Calculating compound interest.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7 using std::ios;
8 using std::fixed;
9
10 #include <iomanip>
11
12 using std::setw;
13 using std::setprecision;
14
15 #include <cmath> // enables program to use function pow
16
17 // function main begins program execution
18 int main()
19 {
20 double amount; // amount on deposit
21 double principal = 1000.0; // starting principal
22 double rate = .05; // interest rate
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23
24 // output table column heads
25 cout << "Year" << setw( 21 ) << "Amount on deposit" << endl;
26
27 // set floating-point number format Sets the field width to at
28 cout << fixed << setprecision( 2 );
least 21 characters. If
output less than 21, it is
29
right-justified.
30 // calculate amount on deposit for each of ten years
31 for ( int year = 1; year <= 10; year++ ) {
32
33 // calculate new amount for specified year
34 amount = principal * pow( 1.0 + rate, year );
35
36 // output one table row
37 cout << setw( 4 ) << year
38 << setw( 21 ) << amount << endl;
39
40 } // end for
41
42 return 0; // indicate successful termination
43
44 } // end function main

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Year Amount on deposit
1 1050.00
2 1102.50
3 1157.63
4 1215.51
5 1276.28
6
7
fig02_21.cpp
1340.10
1407.10

output (1 of 1)
8 1477.46
9 1551.33
10 1628.89

Numbers are right-

justified due to setw
statements (at positions 4
and 21).

70
2.17 do/while Repetition
Structure
 Similar to while structure
 Makes loop continuation test at end, not
beginning
 Loop body executes at least once
 Format action(s)

do {
statement true

} while ( condition ); condition

false

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1 // Fig. 2.24: fig02_24.cpp
2 // Using the do/while repetition structure.
3 #include <iostream>
4
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // function main begins program execution
9 int main()
10 {
11 int counter = 1; // initialize counter
12
13 do { Notice the preincrement in
14 loop-continuation test.
cout << counter << " "; // display counter
15 } while ( ++counter <= 10 ); // end do/while
16
17 cout << endl;
18
19 return 0; // indicate successful termination
20
21 } // end function main

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 72
Structured-Programming Summary
 Structured programming
 Programs easier to understand, test, debug and modify
 Rules for structured programming
 Only use single-entry/single-exit control structures
 Rules
1) Begin with the “simplest flowchart”
2) Any rectangle (action) can be replaced by two rectangles
(actions) in sequence
3) Any rectangle (action) can be replaced by any control
structure (sequence, if, if/else, switch, while, do/while or for)
4) Rules 2 and 3 can be applied in any order and multiple times

73
Structured-Programming Summary
Representation of Rule 3 (replacing any rectangle with a control structure)

Rule 3

Rule 3 Rule 3

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Structured-Programming Summary

 All programs broken down into

 Sequence
 Selection
 if, if/else, or switch
 Any selection can be rewritten as an if statement
 Repetition
 while, do/while or for
 Any repetition structure can be rewritten as a while
statement

75