GENERAL

PHYSIOLOGY
“The answer to the many
why’s of life!”

DR. ROMINA R. BARCARSE

SCHOOL OF DENTISTRY
March 23,2015 DS 414
General Physiology
is merged with
General Anatomy 1 and 2
Oral Anatomy
Oral Physiology
 General Physiology
Objectives:
 This presentation features the basic
physiologic concepts you need to explain
scientific basis of disease with emphasis
on specific cause-and-effect mechanisms.
 Through these basic concepts you should
be able to apply scientific information to
the clinical reasoning process.
 Tips for Studying Physiology
1. Memorize basic information to save
time later
e.g., commonly used terms and
concepts, the four tissues, eleven
body systems, etc.
2. Learn vocabulary quickly, for
understanding when it’s used later
3. Make cheat sheet or flashcards if
needed
 More Tips
4. Brush up on your basic biology
5. Don’t try to remember every variation of
each process.
6. Look for the commonalities between
processes and functions
7. Create your own pneumonics
8. Stay focused
 INTRODUCTION

PHYSIOLOGY IS THE STUDY

OF THE BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF
ORGANS AND THEIR
INTERRELATIONSHIPS.
TO ACCOMPLISH THIS GOAL,
WE WILL USE THE
MANY LEVELS OF
ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY.
 Different Levels of Physiological Research

Organization of the human body

Organisms
Organ
(Human body)
Organs systems
Tissues
Cells
7
Levels of Organization
 Historical Background
THE SCIENCE OF PHYSIOLOGY
BEGIN BEFORE THE
BIRTH OF CHRIST. HOWEVER,
THE FATHER OF MODERN PHYSIOLOGY
IS THE FRENCH PHYSIOLOGIST
CLAUDE BERNARD (1813-1878).
• Physiology: biological sciences
• dealing with the normal life phenomena
exhibited by all living organisms.
• Human physiology: basic sciences
• dealing with normal life phenomena of the
human body.
• Goal of physiology:
• explain the physical and chemical factors
that are responsible for the origin,
development and progression of life.

10
 Basis for Human Physiology
 Physiology: (Greek) The study of nature, t
he involvement of Physics and Chemistry.
 The basis for
– Pathophysiology
– Pharmacology
– Immunology
– Biochemistry
– Microbiology
11
 Why do we study Physiology?

Understand the physiologic princ

iples that underlie normal functi
on in order
to cure
the impairments/disease.

12
 11 S y s t e m s
 Muscular & Skeletal System
 Immune System
 Digestive System
 Respiratory System
 Circulatory System
 Excretory System
 Integumentary System
 Reproductive System (Male & Female)
 Nervous System
 Endocrine System
 11 Body Systems
 The functions performed by the 11 body
systems are directed toward maintaining
homeostasis.
 These functions ultimately depend on the
specialized activities of the cells that make up
the system.
 Thus, homeostasis is essential for each cell’s
survival, and each cell contributes to
homeostasis.
 Let’s start with Homeostasis!
 Homeostasis is the foundation of Physiology
 Homeostasis is the process by which an organism
maintains the composition of the extracellular fluid (ECF)
and intracellular fluid (ICF) in a steady-state condition.
 ECF consists of the blood plasma and interstitial fluid. The
composition of the ECF is maintained by the
cardiovascular, pulmonary, renal, gastrointestinal,
endocrine, and nervous systems acting in coordinated
fashion.
 ICF’s composition is maintained by the cell membrane,
which mediates the transport of material between between
the ICF and ECF by diffusion, osmosis, and active
transport.
 HOMEOSTASIS
1. DYNAMIC
EQUILIBRIUM
2. INSPITE OF
MULTIPLE STIMULI
3. MAINTAINED BY
NEGATIVE
FEEDBACK
The integration between systems of the body

17
 Internal Environment and Homeostasis
Total body water = 60 % BW
Extracellular fluid
Blood Plasma 1/5
1/3 Interstitial fluid 4/5

Intracellular fluid
2/3
= 40 % BW

18
 Internal environment
Intracellular
fluid

Plasma

Interstitial fluid

Extracellular fluid directly baths body cells

Internal environment = Extracellular fluid
19
 Extracellular fluids
Intracellular
fluid

2. Plasma

1. Interstitial fluid
3. Fluid of special compartments: pericardial fluid, pleural fluid, cerebrospi
nal fluid
20
Body systems maintain homeostasis,
a dynamic steady state in the internal
environment.
Body cells can live and function
only when the ECF is compatible with
their survival’ thus the chemical
composition and physical state of
this internal environment must be
maintained within narrow limits.
 Question
1. The volume of ECF is regulated
primarily by the reabsorption and
excretion of

a) sodium lactate
b) sodium bicarbonate
c) sodium chloride
d) sodium phosphate
e) sodium citrate
 Question
2. The major contributor to the osmotically
Active solutes in the ECF is

A. Sodium
B. Albumin
C. Urea
D. Creatinine
E. Potassium
 Homeostasis
Maintenance of Relatively Constant Chemical/Physical
Conditions of the internal environment.
 Claude Bernard - The father of modern Physiology

...The internal environment remains relatively constant t

hough there are changes in the external environment
 stable =/= rigidity, can vary within narrow limit
(normal physiological range)
 The golden goal of every organ : to maintain homeosta
sis (concept of REGULATION)
24
Normal Physiological Ranges
In fasting blood

Arterial pH 7.35-7.45
Bicarbonate 24-28 mEq/L
O2 content17.2-22.0 ml/100 ml
Total lipid 400-800 mg/100 ml
Glucose 75-110 mg/100 ml
25
 Homeostasis & Controls

•Successful
compensation
•Homeostasis
reestablished
•Failure to
compensate
•Pathophysiology
•Illness
•Death 26
Regulation of the Body Functions
Regulation- the ability of an organism to maintain a stable
internal conditions in a constantly changing environment
-Three types:
1. Chemical (hormonal) Regulation- a regulatory
process performed by hormone or active chemical
substance in blood or tissue.
-It response slowly, acts extensively and lasts for a long time.
2. Nervous Regulation- a process in which body
functions are controlled by nerve system
- Pathway: nerve reflex
- Types: unconditioned reflex and conditioned reflex
27
 - Example: baroreceptor reflex of arterial blood pressure
- Characteristics: response fast; acts exactly or locally, last for a
short time
3. Autoregulation – a tissue or an organ can directly
respond to environmental changes that are independent
of nervous and hormonal control
Characteristics ：
Amplitude of the regulation is smaller than other two types.
Extension of the effects is smaller than other two types.

In the human body these three regulations have

coordinated and acts as one system, “feedback control
system”.
28
How does homeostasis take place?
 Homeostatic Control System
A homeostatic control system is a network of
body components working together
to maintain a controlled variable
in the internal environment
relatively constant
near an optimal set point
despite changes in the variable.
 Negative Feedback
The principle of negative
feedback:
A change in a controlled variable
triggers a response that drives the
variable in the opposite direction of
the initial change, thus opposing the
change. 31
 Homeostasis & Feedback Control

 Homeostasis is maintained by mechanisms

that act through negative feedback loops.
 A negative feedback loop requires a sensor
that can detect a change in the environment
and an effector that can be activated by the
sensor
 The effector acts to cause changes in the
internal environment that compensates the
initial deviations that were detected by the
sensor.
 BASIC COMPONENTS OF A
FEEDBACK SYSTEM
1. A RECEPTOR : DETECTS
CHANGES (STIMULI) IN THE BODY.
2. A CONTROL CENTER :
DETERMINES A SET POINT FOR A
NORMAL RANGE.
3. AN EFFECTOR : CAUSES THE
RESPONSE DETERMINED BY THE
CONTROL CENTER.
 Positive Feedback
In positive feedback, a change in a controlled
variable triggers a response that drives the
variable in the same direction as the initial
change, thus amplifying the change.
Positive feedback is uncommon in the body
but is important in several instances, such
as during childbirth
Negative Feedback
 Neurons in the hypothalamus secrete
thyroid releasing hormone (TRH) which
stimulates cells in the anterior pituitary to
secrete TSH

 TSH binds to receptors on epithelial cells

in the thyroid gland, stimulating synthesis
and secretion of thyroid hormones, which
affect probably all cells of the body

 When blood concentrations of thyroid

hormones increase above a certain
threshold, TRH secreting neurons in the
hypothalamus as inhibited and stop
secreting TRH.

 This is an example of “negative feedback”

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
 Positive Feedback
The feedback signal or output from the
controlled system increases the action of
the control system
Examples: Blood clotting, Micturition,
defecation, Na+ inflow in genesis of nerve
signals, Contraction of the uterus during
childbirth (parturition).
37
 POSITIVE FEEDBACK

A REGULATORY MECHANISM IN
WHICH THE RESPONSE TO A
STIMULUS, IN A CONTROL SYSTEM,
CAUSES THE CONTROLLED VARIABLE
TO MOVE FARTHER FROM THE
SET POINT.
 POSITIVE FEEDBACK

POSITIVE FEEDBACK USUALLY

DOES NOT MAINTAIN HOMEOSTASIS.
IT IS CHARACTERIZED BY BEING
SHORT IN DURATION AND
INFREQUENT.
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
Importance:
1) Enhance the action of original stimulus
or amplify or reinforce change, promote
an activity to finish
2) It is known as a vicious circle because it
can lead to instability or even death

41
 Question
3.If a person feels cold, her body will initiate a
number of mechanisms, such as shivering,
designed to increase body temperature, and
other temperature-raising mechanisms. This
will stop the body reactions until it reaches a
normal temperature. This is an example of
what process?
A. positive feedback
B. negative feedback
C. neutral feedback
D. positive regulating
E. negative regulating
CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY
 The Cell
 The cell is the basic unit of structure and function
in the body. Many of the functions of cells are
performed by particular subcellular structures
called organelles.
 The human body contains about 100 trillion cells,
each of which is a living structure. Several
hundred basic types of cells exist in the body, Yet
despite the difference between cells, they will have
some functions in common, like their ability to live,
grow and reproduce.
 Some show characteristics of metabolism,
irritability and even movement or locomotion .
 Each is specially adapted to perform one particular
function
 CELL ORGANELLES
 Cell Membrane
 Nucleus
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi complex
 Mitochondria
 Lysosomes
 Microfilaments and microtubules
 Vesicles
 Question
4. The cytoplasm consists of
_____________, which are discrete,
specialized intracellular compartments,
a gel-like mass known as
______________, and an elaborate
protein scaffolding called
_____________.
 The NUCLEUS
 Site of DNA (In
chromosomes)

 Enclosed by a
membrane
 Question
5. The chemical that directs
protein synthesis and serves as a
genetic blueprint is
________________, which is
found in the _____________of the
cell.
 Question
6. Which of the following substances is found
in RNA molecules but NOT in DNA molecules?
A. Deoxyribose
B. Phosphorus
C. Adenine
D. Uracil
E. Thymine
 Question

6. Chromatin is a nucleoprotein complex

made up of DNA in combination with the
protein known as:
A. Protamine
B. Proline
C. Prolamine
D. Albumin
E. Histone
 DNA REPLICATION
 The double helix
“unzips”
 New bases pair up
with the old ones
 The molecule
replicates itself
 Two identical copies
each with one old
strand and one new
 Question
8.Suppose a DNA molecule separates
forming strands A and B and the
nucleotide sequence in strand A is ATG
CTA GTA CTA. From this template which
would be the sequence of nucleotides in
the DNA replicated from strand A?
A. TAC GAT CAT GAT
B. TUC TAT CUG TUT
C. ACT TAG TAC ATC
D. GCA CAG GGA AGU
RNA TRANSCRIPTION

 Messenger
RNA “copies”
from DNA
 m-RNA
caries the
message to
the rough ER
 Functions of organelles
 Mitochondria as
the powerhouse
of the cell, have
membranes
folded into cristae
with matrix
material involved
in ATP production
(energy).
 MITOCHONDRIA
 Extract Energy from
Food Fuels
Question
9. The universal
energy carrier of
 Energy is stored in
the body is
ATP
_____________.
 Aerobic Metabolism
 Anaerobic Metabolism
 Sugar can be burned without oxygen -
anaerobically
 Far more energy released from burning
sugar aerobically
 Glycolysis is anaerobic - carried out in
cytosol
 Glucose ----> 3 Carbon fragments plus 2
ATP
 Question
10. Glucose is first metabolized through
A. aerobic glycolysis
B. anaerobic glycolysis
C. gluconeogenesis
D. the Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
E. the Respiratory Chain or ETC
 Aerobic Metabolism
 Pyruvic Acid (3 C fragment) enters
Mitochondria
 Combines with Coenzyme A loosing a CO2
and becoming Acetyl Coenzyme A (2 C
fragment)
 This fragment enters a cyclic reaction
scheme, the Citric Acid Cycle (Kreb’s Cycle)
 Ultimately, 34 more ATP’s are produced
 Question
11. Each “turn” of the Kreb cycle
A. Generates 3NAD+ , 1 FADH2, and 2 CO2
B. Generates 1GTP, 2 CO2, and 1 FADH2
C. Consumes 1 puruvate and 1 oxaloacetate
D. Consumes an amino acid
Golgi complex
 The important role of the
Golgi complex is to make
certain the plasma
membrane proteins reach
their destination.
 The orientation of the
protein is maintained so that
the region destined to
project outside the cell ends
up in that place.
 In order to do this, it must
be placed so that it faces
inside the vesicle.
ER -> Golgi -> Secretion

Question
12. Transport
vesicles from the
_____________
fuse with and enter
the___________for
modification and
sorting.
 Exocytosis
 Vesicles fuse
with the
membrane

 They open to
the outside and
discharge their
contents
 Question
13. One of the functions of the Golgi complex is to
A. synthesize protein
B. nucleate polymerization of
microtubules
C. synthesize lysosomal enzymes
D. synthesize carbohydrates
E. process and package secretory
products
Secretory Pathway in a Cell
1.Nuclear membrane
2. Nuclear pore
3. rER
4. sER
5. Ribosomes
attached to rER
6. Macromolecules
7. Transport vesicles
8. Golgi apparatus
9. Cis face of Golgi
10. Trans face of
Golgi
11. Cisternae of Golgi
apparatus
Endoplasmic reticulum
 rER – consists of
flattened sacks of
cisternae studded with
ribosomes for the
synthesis of proteins
destined for secretion

 sER- consists of an
anastomosing network of
interconnected citernae
and tubules. It functions
in glycogen breakdown,
synthesis of cholesterol
and phospholipids and
serves to detoxify drugs
and poisons
 Rough ER : Site of Protein
Synthesis
 Rough ER contains ribosomes
 M-RNA attaches to ribosome
 A triplet of bases is a Codon
 Transfer RNA has an anticodon at one end
and the appropriate amino acid at the other
 As the code is read, amino acids are
assembled into a protein
 Question
14.Which of the following organelles is most
closely associated with the transcription
activity of RNA?
A. Mitochondria
B. Nucleus
C. Ribosomes
D. Golgi Apparatus
E. Lysosome
 Question
15. Synthesis of steroids and drug
detoxification are functions of the
A. rough endoplasmic reticulum
B. Golgi complex
C. smooth endoplasmic reticulum
D. mitochondria
E. perinuclear cisternae
 Inositol Triphosphate (IP3)
 The release of calcium in many smooth
muscles is mediated by IP3
 When a calcium-mobilizing stimulus
binds to its receptor on the cell
membrane, it activates a phosphatase
enzyme, phospholipase C.
 This phospholipase C cleaves inositol
diphosphate into IP3 and DAG. IP3
causes the release of Ca from the SR.
 Question
16. Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic
reticulum by:
A. diacylglycerol
B. G protein
C. phospholipase C
D. adenylate cyclase
E. inositol triphosphate
Lysosomes
 Lysosomes are membrane-
bounded organelles
containing hydrolytic
enzymes.
 They have several functions
in cell physiology. They
degrade phagocytized
foreign materials, lipid
aggregates and glycogen
granules, responsible also
in tissue degradation during
regression, and are
abundant in macrophages
and in leukocytes.
THE CYTOSKELETON
 Microtubules
 Microfilaments
 Intermediate Filaments
 Microtubular Lattice
Microfilaments
This is a
flourescence
digital image of
a fibroblast
showing actin
cytoskeletal
network.
 Question
17. Which cytoskeletal networks play a vital role
in various cellular contractile systems,
including muscular contraction and ameoboid
movement and also serve as a mechanical
stiffener for microvilli?
A. Microtubules
B. Microfilaments
C. Intermediate filaments
D. Microtubular lattice
E. AOTC
 Microtubules are cytoskeletal elements in
certain forms of cell movement and is an
essential component of the mitotic spindle
and centrioles
 Question
18. The microtubules of the mitotic spindle
attach to:
A. telomeres of chromosomes
B. synaptonemal complex
C. intermediate filaments
D. Golgi net
E. kinetochores
 The Genetic Code
 The genetic code is based on the
structure of DNA and is
expressed through the structure
and function of RNA.

 DNA and RNA are composed of

subunits called nucleotides, and
together these molecules are
known as nucleic acids.

 The genetic code is based on the

sequences of DNA nucleotides,
which serve to direct the
synthesis of RNA molecules.

 It is through the RNA-directed

synthesis of proteins that the
genetic code is expressed.
 Question
20. The steps in cellular protein synthesis at the
ultrastractural level include
A. obtaining of amino acids from phagosome
B. reverse transcriptase with production of
messenger RNA
C. initial assembly of amino acids into
polypeptides within smooth ER
D. removal of phospholipid support by Golgi
apparatus
E. translation of messenger RNA code
  Nucleotides are
the repeating
Nucleotides units of nucleic
acids.
 They are made
up of nitrogenous
base (pyrimidine
and purine),
pentose sugar
and phosphate
group.
Types of RNA
 Types of RNA
 mRNA – contains the genetic code transcribed
from DNA. It conveys information in a gene to
the protein synthesizing machinery
 tRNA – acts as adaptor molecule in the
translation of the genetic code into the amino
acid component of the protein molecule
 rRNA – provides the working area for protein
synthesis
 Question
21.If a messenger RNA codon is UAC,
which of the following would be the
complementary anticodon triplet in the
transfer RNA?
A. ATG
B. AUC
C. AUG
D. ATT
E. ATC
Types of RNA in a Gene
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
 In the cytoplasm,
rRNA and protein
combine to form a
nucleoprotein called
a ribosome.
 The ribosome serves
as the site and
carries the enzymes
necessary for protein
synthesis
Types of RNA
 RNA: tRNA, mRNA, rRNA

 tRNa is characterized by bending

on itself to form a cloverleaf
structure that twists further into an
upside down “L” shape.

 In order for a gene to be expressed,

it first must be used as a guide, or
template, in the production of a
complementary strand of mRNA.

 This mRNA is then itself used as a

guide to produce a particular type
of protein whose sequence of
amino acids is determined by the
sequence of base triplets (codons)
in the mRNA
Translation and Transcription
 Translation is
best defined as
the synthesis of
specific
proteins from
the mRNA base
sequence code
 Transcription is
the synthesis of
RNA molecules
from DNA
 Question
22. What enzyme is needed in the
replication of DNA?
A. DNA transferase
B. DNA transmutase
C. DNA catalase
D. DNA polymerase
 The Flow of Genetic Information
(Central Dogma)
1

DNA 2 RNA
3
Proteins
4

5
DNA RNA
The 3 General Transfer of Information:
1. Replication or duplication – DNA to DNA
2. Transcription – DNA to RNA
3. Translation – RNA to proteins

Transfer of Information in Disease process:

4. RNA to RNA – occurs in tumor formation
5. RNA to DNA – occurs in viral systems
 Question
23. An enzyme involved in transcription of
DNA to RNA is
A. DNA polymerase
B. ribonuclease
C. hyaluronidase
D. tRNA synthetase
E. RNA polymerase
FMM - Cell Membrane - EM
 Question
24. Cholesterol functions in the plasmalemma
to:
A. increase fluidity of the lipid bilayer
B. decrease fluidity of the lipid bilayer
C. facilitate the diffusion of ions through the
lipid bilayer
D. assist in the transport of hormones across
the lipid bilayer
E. bind extracellular matrix molecules
 History of the Plasma Membrane
 1665: Robert Hooke
 1895: Charles Overton - composed of lipids
 1900-1920’s: must be a phospholipid
 1925: E. Gorter and G. Grendel -
phospholipid bilayer
 1935: J.R. Danielli and H. Davson – proteins
also part, proposed the Sandwich Model
 1950’s: J.D. Robertson – proposed the Unit
Membrane Model
 1972: S.J. Singer and G.L. Nicolson –
proposed Fluid Mosaic Model
 Which membrane model is correct?
1) Rapidly freeze specimen
2) Use special knife to cut membrane in half
3) Apply a carbon + platinum coating to the surface
4) Use scanning electron microscope to see the surface

According to the electron micrograph which membrane model is correct?

Why?

Fluid-Mosaic Model
 Fluid-Mosaic Model
 Fluid – the plasma membrane is the consistency of olive oil at body
temperature, due to unsaturated phospholipids. (cells differ in the
amount of unsaturated to saturated fatty acid tails)
 Most of the lipids and some proteins drift laterally on either side.
Phospholipids do not switch from one layer to the next.
 Cholesterol affects fluidity: at body temperature it lessens fluidity by
restraining the movement of phospholipids, at colder temperatures it
adds fluidity by not allowing phospholipids to pack close together.

 Mosaic – membrane proteins form a collage that differs on either

side of the membrane and from cell to cell (greater than 50 types of
proteins), proteins span the membrane with hydrophilic portions facing
out and hydrophobic portions facing in. Provides the functions of the
membrane
Structure of the Plasma Membrane
Proteins of the Plasma Membrane
Provide 6 Membrane Functions:

1) Transport Proteins
2) Receptor Proteins
3) Enzymatic Proteins
4) Cell Recognition Proteins
5) Attachment Proteins
6) Intercellular Junction
Proteins
 1) Transport Proteins
Channel Proteins –
channel for lipid
insoluble molecules
and ions to pass freely
through
Carrier Proteins – bind
to a substance and
carry it across
membrane, change
shape in process
 2) Receptor Proteins
– Bind to chemical
messengers (Ex.
hormones) which
sends a message into
the cell causing
cellular reaction
 3) Enzymatic Proteins
– Carry out enzymatic
reactions right at the
membrane when a
substrate binds to the
active site
 4) Cell Recognition Proteins
– Glycoproteins (and
glycolipids) on
extracellular surface
serve as ID tags
(which species, type of
cell, individual).
Carbohydrates are
short branched chains
of less than 15 sugars
 5) Attachment Proteins
- Attach to cytoskeleton (to
maintain cell shape and
stabilize proteins) and/or the
extracellular matrix (integrins
connect to both).
- Extracellular Matrix – protein
fibers and carbohydrates
secreted by cells and fills the
spaces between cells and
supports cells in a tissue.
- Extracellular matrix can
influence activity inside the
cell and coordinate the
behavior of all the cells in a
tissue.
 6) Intercellular Junction Proteins

– Bind cells together

– Tight junctions
– Gap junctions
 How do materials move into and
out of the cell?
• Materials must move
in and out of the cell
through the plasma
membrane.
• Some materials
move between the
phospholipids.
• Some materials
move through the
proteins.
 Plasma Membrane Transport
• Molecules move across the plasma
membrane by:
 What are three types of
passive transport?

1) Diffusion
2) Facilitated Diffusion
3) Osmosis
ATP energy is not
needed to move the
molecules through.
 Passive Transport 1: Diffusion
• Molecules can move directly
through the phospholipids of the
plasma membrane

This is called …
 Question
 Which one of the following substances in
unable to traverse the plasma membrane by
simple diffusion?
A. O2
B. N2
C. Na+
D. Glycerol
E. CO2
 What is Diffusion?

• Diffusion is the net

movement of molecules
from a high
concentration to a low
concentration until
equally distributed.

• Diffusion rate is related

to temperature,
pressure, state of matter,
size of concentration
gradient, and surface
area of membrane.

http://www.biologycorner.com/resources/diffusion-animated.gif
What molecules pass through the
plasma membrane by diffusion?
• Gases (oxygen, carbon
dioxide)
• Water molecules (rate
slow due to polarity)
• Lipids (steroid
hormones)
• Lipid soluble molecules
(hydrocarbons, alcohols,
some vitamins)
• Small noncharged
molecules (NH3)
 Why is diffusion important to cells
and humans?
• Cell respiration
• Alveoli of lungs
• Capillaries
• Red Blood Cells
• Medications: time-
release capsules
 Question
25. In the flux of glucose across a cell
membrane is directly proportional to the
concentration gradient of glucose, the
transport process is
A. active transport
B. facilitated diffusion
C. Na+ -coupled cotransport
D. simple diffusion
 Passive Transport 2: Facilitated
Diffusion
• Molecules can move through the
plasma membrane with the aid of
transport proteins
This is called …
 What is Facilitated Diffusion?

• Facilitated diffusion
is the net movement
of molecules from a
high concentration to
a low concentration
with the aid of
channel or carrier
proteins.
 What molecules move through the plasma
membrane by facilitated diffusion?
• Ions
(Na+, K+, Cl-)

• Sugars (Glucose)

• Amino Acids

• Small water soluble

molecules

• Water (faster rate)

 How do molecules move through the
plasma membrane by facilitated diffusion?

• Channel and Carrier proteins are specific:

• Channel Proteins allow ions, small solutes, and water
to pass
• Carrier Proteins move glucose and amino acids
• Facilitated diffusion is rate limited, by the number of
proteins channels/carriers present in the membrane.
 Specific Types of Facilitated
Diffusion
 Counter Transport – the transport
of two substances at the same time
in opposite directions, without ATP.
Protein carriers are called
Antiports.
 Co-transport – the transport of
two substances at the same time in
the same direction, without ATP.
Protein carriers are called
Symports.
 Gated Channels – receptors
combined with channel proteins.
When a chemical messenger binds
to a receptor, a gate opens to allow
ions to flow through the channel.
 Question
26. Symport refers to the process of transporting
A.A molecule into the cell
B.A molecule out of the cell
C.Two different molecules in the opposite direction
D.Two different molecules in the same direction
E.A molecule between the cytoplasm and the
nucleus
 Why is facilitated diffusion
important to cells and humans?
• Cells obtain food for
cell respiration
• Neurons
communicate
• Small intestine cells
transport food to
bloodstream
• Muscle cells contract
Passive Transport 3: Osmosis
• Water Molecules can move directly
through the phospholipids of the
plasma membrane

This is called …
 What is Osmosis?

• Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a

semipermeable membrane. Water molecules bound
to solutes cannot pass due to size, only unbound
molecules. Free water molecules collide, bump into
the membrane, and pass through.
 Osmosis in action
• What will happen in the
U-tube if water freely
moves through the
membrane but glucose
can not pass?

• Water moves from side with

high concentration of water to
side with lower concentration
of water. Movement stops
when osmotic pressure
equals hydrostatic pressure.
Why is osmosis important to cells
and humans?
• Cells remove water
produced by cell
respiration.
• Large intestine cells
transport water to
bloodstream
• Kidney cells form
urine
 Osmosis and Tonicity
 Tonicity refers to the total solute
concentration of the solution outside the
cell.
 What are the three types of tonicity?
1) Isotonic
2) Hypotonic
3) Hypertonic
 Review: Passive Transport

• Diffusion – O2 moves in and CO2 moves out

during cell respiration

• Facilitated Diffusion – glucose and amino

acids enter cell for cell respiration

• Osmosis – cell removal or addition of water

 What are three types of
Active transport?

1) Active Transport
2) Exocytosis
3) Endocytosis
– Phagocytosis
– Pinocytosis
– Receptor-Mediated ATP energy is
endocytosis required to move the
molecules through.
 Active Transport
 Molecules move from areas of low
concentration to areas of high concentration
with the aid of ATP energy.
 Requires protein carriers called Pumps.
 The Importance of Active Transport
 Bring in essential molecules: ions,
amino acids, glucose, nucleotides
 Rid cell of unwanted molecules (Ex.
sodium from urine in kidneys)
 Maintain internal conditions different
from the environment
 Regulate the volume of cells by
controlling osmotic potential
 Control cellular pH
 Re-establish concentration
gradients to run facilitated diffusion.
(Ex. Sodium-Potassium pump and
Proton pumps)
 The Sodium-Potassium Pump
 3 Sodium ions move out of
the cell and then 2
Potassium ions move into
the cell.
 Driven by the splitting of
ATP to provide energy and
conformational change to
proteins by adding and then
taking away a phosphate
group.
 Used to establish an
electrochemical gradient
across neuron cell
membranes. http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/library/biology107/bi107vc/fa99/terry/images/ATPpumA.gif
 Question
27. ATP is used directly in which of the following
transport processes?
A. transport of glucose into a red blood cell
B. transport of Ca++ out of a cell by Na+ -Ca++
exchange
C. transport of K+ out of a cell during an action
potential
D. removal of norepinephrine from the synaptic cleft
by the presynaptic nerve terminal
E. removal of Ca++ from the cytoplasm by the
sarcoplasmic reticulum
 Active Transport 2: Exocytosis
 Movement of large
molecules bound in
vesicles out of the cell
with the aid of ATP
energy. Vesicle fuses
with the plasma
membrane to eject
macromolecules.
 Ex. Proteins,
polysaccharides,
polynucleotides, whole
cells, hormones, mucus,
neurotransmitters, waste
 Active Transport 3: Endocytosis
 Movement of large molecules into the cell
by engulfing them in vesicles, using ATP
energy.
 Three types of Endocytosis:
– Phagocytosis
– Pinocytosis
– Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 Question
28. In receptor-mediated endocytosis the
membrane vesicles are initially enclosed in
A. calmodulin
B. syndesmin
C. dystrohin
D. actin
E. clathrin
 Phagocytosis
 “Cellular Eating” – engulfing large
molecules, whole cells, bacteria
 Ex. Macrophages ingesting bacteria or worn
out red blood cells.
 Ex. Unicellular organisms engulfing food
particles.
 Pinocytosis
 “Cellular Drinking” – engulfing liquids and
small molecules dissolved in liquids;
unspecific what enters.
 Ex. Intestinal cells, Kidney cells, Plant root
cells
 Question
 The process of pinocytosis includes
A. ingestion of bacteria
B. extrusion of carbon particles
C. bringing RBC’s into the macrophages
D. vesicle formation at cell surface
E. ameboid motion
 Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
 Movement of very specific
molecules into the cell with the
use of vesicles coated with the
protein clathrin.
 Coated pits are specific
locations coated with clathrin
and receptors. When specific
molecules (ligands) bind to the
receptors, then this stimulates
the molecules to be engulfed
into a coated vesicle.
 Ex. Uptake of cholesterol (LDL)
by animal cells
 Types of Endocytosis

 What is phagocytosis?

 What is pinocytosis?

 What is receptor-
mediated endocytosis?
 Question
29. Which type of vesicular transport is involved
when secretory products like hormones and
enzymes as well as large molecules pass
through cell intact and are also important in
membrane recycling?
A. pinoytosis
B. phagocytosis
C. exocytosis
D. AOTC
 SURFACE TENSION IS THE
TENDENCY FOR A LIQUID TO
CONTRACT AS A
CONSEQUENCE OF ITS
POSSESION OF FREE
ENERGY, SINCE APPROACH
TO EQUILIBRIUM IS ALWAYS
ACCOMPANIED BY A
DIMINUTION OF FREE
ENERGY.
We’ve all played with
it- water drops being
added one at a time, until
that one drop breaks the
surface and the water
spills out.
IT IS HARD TO BELIEVE THAT H-BONDS AND SURFACE TENSION
ARE ENOUGH TO KEEP THE VOLUME OF WATER THAT IS IN
THESE BEADS STUCK TO THE PLANT
What are biologic activities which can be best
explained in terms of surface tension?
Phenomena:
- the spherical form of a falling drop of water
- a soap bubble floating in the air
- a globule of mercury resting on flat surface
 Applications in the Body:
- phagocytosis or ameboid motion
- absorption of metabolites/nutrients
- transport of blood
DIALYSIS is the separation of the more
diffusible from the less diffusible
 What are the factors which
influence diffusion?
 Temperature
 Molecular weight
 Shape and size of molecules
 Solubility of gas in the medium
 Presence or absence of lectrical charge of
diffusing solute
 Ability of diffusing solute to dissolve in lipids
 Action Potential
 Action Potentials are brief, rapid, large
(100mV) changes in membrane potential
during which the potential actually reverses,
so that inside the excitable cell transiently
becomes more positive than the outside.
 Action potential can serve as faithful
long-distance signals. They don’t diminish in
strength as they travel from their site of
initiation throughout the remainder of the
CM.
ACTION POTENTIAL
 Events During an Action Potential
 Depolarization – cell goes from inside negative (-)
to inside positive(+). Sodium channels open so
sodium diffusively floods in (-70mV toward 58mV)
 Repolarization – Na channels close and K
channels open (returns to inside negative). K
follows its diffusive gradient and K diffuses out
of the cell
 Hyperpolarization – “undershoot” of resting
potential )-75mV
 Refractory period – time before another action
potential can “fire”
 Question
30. The membrane potential will depolarize by
the greatest amount if the membrane
permeability increases for
A. Potassium
B. Sodium and potassium
C. Chloride
D. Potassium and chloride
E. Sodium, potassium and chloride
MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY
Muscular System Functions

 Body movement
 Maintenance of posture
 Respiration
 Production of body heat
 Communication
 Constriction of organs and vessels
 Heart beat
 Properties of Muscle
 Contractility
– Ability of a muscle to shorten with force
 Excitability
– Capacity of muscle to respond to a stimulus
 Extensibility
– Muscle can be stretched to its normal resting
length and beyond to a limited degree
 Elasticity
– Ability of muscle to recoil to original resting length
after stretched
 Muscle Tissue Types
 Skeletal
– Attached to bones
– Nuclei multiple and peripherally located
– Striated, Voluntary and involuntary (reflexes)
 Smooth
– Walls of hollow organs, blood vessels, eye, glands,
skin
– Single nucleus centrally located
– Not striated, involuntary, gap junctions in visceral
smooth
 Cardiac
– Heart
– Single nucleus centrally located
– Striations, involuntary, intercalated disks
 Muscular Tissue
 Skeletal Muscle
 Cardiac Muscle
 Smooth Muscle
Parts of a Muscle
Skeletal Muscle Structure

 Muscle fibers or
cells
– Develop from
myoblasts
– Numbers remain
constant
 Connective tissue
 Nerve and blood
vessels
 Types of Muscle Fibre
 White Muscle Fibre
– Predominantly takes part in fast action
– Requires more Oxygen
– Heart & Lungs have to work more
 Red Muscle Fibre
– Predominantly takes part in Slow action
– Requires less Oxygen
– Heart & Lungs have to work less
– Presence of Myoglobin
Organization I:
Organization II:
Organization III:
Connective Tissue, Nerve,
Blood Vessels
 Connective tissue
– External lamina
– Endomysium
– Perimysium
– Fasciculus
– Epimysium
 Fascia
 Nerve and blood
vessels
– Abundant
Embryologic origin:
Muscle fibre:
 31. True or False
 31.a On completion of an action potential in a
muscle fiber, the contractile activity initiated by
the action potential ceases.

 31.b The pacemaker potential always initiates an

action potential.

 31.c Smooth muscle can develop tension even

when considerably stretched , because the thin
filaments still overlap with the long thick
filaments.
Internal organization:
Striations:
Organization of Myofilaments I:
Sliding filament model II:
Organization of Myofilaments II:
SARCOMERE
 Sliding Filament Model I:

 Actin myofilaments sliding over myosin to

shorten sarcomeres
– Actin and myosin do not change length
– Shortening sarcomeres responsible for skeletal
muscle contraction
 During relaxation, sarcomeres lengthen
Sarcomere Shortening
 32. Matching Type
 Indicate what happens in the banding
pattern during contraction:
A)Remains the same size during contraction
B)Decrease in length (shortens) during
contraction
32.1 H zone 32.4 Thick myofilament
32.2 Sarcomere 32.5 A band
32.3 I band 32.6 Thin myofilament
 Question
33.Which of the following is not involved in
bringing about muscle relaxation?
A. Reuptake of Ca2+ by the sarcoplasmic
reticulum
B. No more ATP
C. no more action potential
D. Removal of ACh at the end plate by
acethyllcholinesterase
E. filaments sliding back to their resting
position
Structure of Actin and Myosin
 CONTRACTILE PROTEINS
1. THIN FILAMENT
- Has 3 parts;
i) ACTIN PROTEIN
(i.e. the main molecule of this filament).
FUNCTION: Binds to myosin head.
ii) TROPONIN
FUNCTION: Regulatory function by binding to Ca 2+

iii) TROPOMYOSIN
FUNCTION: Has a regulatory function by blocking/unblocking
the binding site of actin to the myosin head
Thick filament structure:
Cross-bridge formation:
Mechanism of muscle contraction
 Cross-bridge Cycle
 1. Binding: Myosin  3. Detachment: Cross
cross-bridge binds to bridge detaches at end
actin molecule of power stroke and
returns to original
 2. Power Stroke: Cross conformation
bridge bends, pulling
thin myofilament  4. Binding: Cross
inward bridge binds to more
distal actin
molecule;cycle repeats
 Cross Bridge Activity
During each cross-bridge cycle, the
cross bridge binds with an actin
molecule, bends to pull the thin
filament inward during the power
stroke, then detaches and returns to its
resting conformation, ready to repeat
the cycle.
Physiology of Skeletal Muscle
 Nervous system
– Controls muscle
contractions through
action potentials
 Resting membrane
potentials
– Membrane voltage
difference across
membranes (polarized)
• Inside cell more
negative and more K+
 Outside cell more
positive and more Na+
– Must exist for action
potential to occur
 With reference to Skeletal Muscles
ATP – supplies energy for the power stroke
of a cross bridge
Troponin-tropomyosin complex- prevents actin from
interacting with myosin when the muscle fiber is not excited
T tubule – rapidly transmits the action potential to the central
portion of the muscle fiber
Myosin – has ATPase activity
Actin – cyclically binds with the myosin cross bridges during
contraction
Calcium ions – pulls the troponin-tropomyosin complex out of
its blocking position
Multiple-Wave Summation
 As frequency of action
potentials increase,
frequency of contraction
increases

 Action potentials come

close enough together so
that the muscle does not
have time to completely
relax between
contractions.
Incomplete Tetanus
Muscle fibers
partially relax
between
contraction

 There is time for

Ca 2+ to be
recycled through
the SR between
action potentials
Complete Tetanus

 No relaxation
between contractions

 Action potentials
come sp close
together that Ca 2+
does not get re-
sequestered in the
SR
Treppe
 Graded response
 Occurs in muscle rested
for prolonged period
 Each subsequent
contraction is stronger
than previous until all
equal after few stimuli
 Question
34. There is a continued rapid sequence of
stimuli that results in a gradual decrease of
maximum contraction in this type of muscle
phenomenon
A. wave summation
B. tetanus
C. incomplete tetanus
D. Treppe phenomenon
E. Twitch
Types of Muscle Phenomena
 What is a muscle twitch?
 The brief contractile response of skeletal
muscle to a single maximal volley of
impulses in the motor neuron supplying it is
called a twitch.
 It is the fundamental unit of recordable
muscle activity.
 The duration of a twitch is between 1/5 and
1/200 second, depending of the type of
muscle
Phases of a Muscle Twitch
 What are the three phases of a
muscle twitch?
 Latent phase- indicates the period between the
time the stimulus is applied and the beginning of
the contractile response (0.01 sec)

 Contraction phase – follows the latent phase

when the muscle responds to the stimulus by
shortening (0.04 sec)

 Relaxation phase – is the period when the

muscle returns to its original length(0.05 sec)
Speed of contraction:
 Energy Sources
 ATP provides immediate energy for muscle
contractions from 3 sources
– Creatine phosphate
 During resting conditions stores energy to synthesize
ATP
– Anaerobic respiration
 Occurs in absence of oxygen and results in breakdown
of glucose to yield ATP and lactic acid
– Aerobic respiration
 Requires oxygen and breaks down glucose to produce
ATP, carbon dioxide and water
 More efficient than anaerobic
 Types of Muscle Contractions
 Isometric: No change in length but tension
increases
– Postural muscles of body
 Isotonic: Change in length but tension
constant
– Concentric: Overcomes opposing resistance and
muscle shortens
– Eccentric: Tension maintained but muscle
lengthens
 Muscle tone: Constant tension by muscles
for long periods of time
 Type of Work
 Isotonic Contraction
– Tone remains constant
– Length changes
– Requires more Oxygen
– Taking initial state requires more time
 Isometric Contraction
– Length remains constant
– Tone changes
– Requires less Oxygen
– Taking initial state requires less time
 Fatigue
 Decreased capacity to work and
reduced efficiency of performance
 Types:
– Psychological
 Depends on emotional state of individual
– Muscular
 Results from ATP depletion
– Synaptic
 Occurs in neuromuscular junction due to lack of
acetylcholine
 Effects of Aging on Skeletal
Muscle
 Reduced muscle mass
 Increased time for muscle to contract in
response to nervous stimuli
 Reduced stamina
 Increased recovery time
 Loss of muscle fibers
 Decreased density of capillaries in muscle
Smooth Muscle
 Fusiform cells
 One nucleus per cell
 Nonstriated
 Involuntary
 Slow, wave-like
contractions
Smooth Muscle
 Characteristics
– Not striated
– Dense bodies instead of
Z disks as in skeletal
muscle
 Have noncontractile
intermediate filaments
– Ca2+ required to initiate
contractions
 Types
– Visceral or unitary
 Function as a unit
– Multiunit
 Cells or groups of cells
act as independent units
Smooth Muscle Contraction
Electrical Properties of
Smooth Muscle
 Functional Properties of
Smooth Muscle
 Some visceral muscle exhibits
autorhythmic contractions
 Tends to contract in response to sudden
stretch but no to slow increase in length
 Exhibits relatively constant tension:
Smooth muscle tone
 Amplitude of contraction remains
constant although muscle length varies
 Smooth Muscle Regulation

 Innervated by autonomic nervous system

 Neurotransmitters are acetylcholine and
norepinephrine
 Hormones important as epinephrine and
oxytocin
 Receptors present on plasma membrane
which neurotransmitters or hormones
bind determines response
Fast and Slow twitch
muscles
1. Slow twitch muscles are
Type I or slow oxidative fibers or
red muscles – are designed to
sustain slow but long-lived
muscular contractions and are
able to function for long periods
on aerobic activity.

2. Fast twitch muscles are

white fibers or Type II – have
larger diameter, more extensive
sarcoplasmic reticulum, more
folds in their neuromuscular
junctions, more glycolytic
enzymes, less myoglobin, and
fewer mitochondria.
 Subtypes of Fast Twitch Muscles
 Type IIa or intermediate fast twitch muscles- or
fast oxidative glycolytic fibers (FOG)- because of
their ability to display, when exposed to the
relevant training stimuli; has the high capacity to
contract under conditions of aerobic energy
production
 Type IIb fibers are the “turbo chargers ” in our
muscles and are also called fast glycogenolytic
(FG) fibers since they rely almost exclusively on
the short-term alactic/glycotic energy system to
fire them up
BLOOD
PHYSIOLOGY
Functions of Blood
– To carry Oxygen from lungs to cells and to
carry CO2 from cells to lungs
– To carry nutrients from Digestive system to
cells
– To carry excretory products (waste material)
from cells to excretory organs
– To carry hormones
– To maintain water balance in the body
– To maintain body temperature
– To protect the body from infections
– Clotting the blood after injury
Blood Physiology & Immune
System
 Blood provides a medium for
the maintenance of
homeostasis in the cell’s
environment.
 Blood functions as transport
system for nutrients and gases
to the cells and removing
waste products and CO2 the
interstitial fluid around the cells.

 Blood serves to link the various

organs of the body, integrating
them through the action of
hormones
 Question
35. All of the following characteristics can be used
to distinguish neutrophils and basophils
histologically except one. Which one is the
exception?
A. size of specific granules
B. shape of the nucleus
C. number of azurophilic granules
D. the presence or absense of peroxidase
E. the presence of mitochondria
ERYTHROCYTES
 Question
36. A red blood cell will shrink by the greatest
amount when it is placed in a solution
containing
a) 300 mM urea
b) 200 mM glucose
c) 200 mM urea and 200 mM glucose
d) 200 mM CaCl2
e) 200 mM NaCl
Give the functions of these
blood cells!
 Question
37. All of the following are true about
neutrophils, except
A. phagocytize bacteria
B. contain oxidase and proteases
C. first on scene after tissue injury
D. contain defensins
E. release histamine
Give the normal values for these cells
and their clinical significance:
How do you know if you have
anemia?
Which of the 3 factors cause
the type of anemia?
IRON-DEFICIENCY ANEMIA
 Question
38. Which of the following is a measure of
the active hemoglobin content of the
blood?
a) oxygen capacity
b) red blood cell count
c) oxygen tension
d) level of serum iron
e) oxygen consumption
How is a clot formed?
 Question
39. The mechanism of blood coagulation
starts with
A. Factor I
B. Factor II
C. Factor IV
D. Factor VIII
E. Factor XII
CLOT FORMATION
 Question
40. Blood coagulation involve a cascade of
reactions that occur in two interrelated
pathways, the extrinsic and intrinsic. All of the
following are associated with the intrinsic
pathway of blood coagulation, EXCEPT
A. Conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin
B. Platelet aggregation
C. Release of tissue thromboplastin
D. Von Willebrand factor
E. Calcium
Types of Lymphocytes
 What are the types of
lymphocytes?
 B cells – mature from the bone marrow
 T cells – mature from the thymus gland
 Subtypes of T cells:
- Cytotoxic T cells
- Helper T cells
- Memory T cells
- Regulatory T cells
- Natural Killer T cells
 What are B cells for?
 B cells are responsible for antibody-
mediated immunity (humoral immunity)
 They produce antibodies, which are
proteins that bind with and neutralize
specific antigens. Antibodies do not
directly kill bacteria but mark them for
destruction
 B cells produce 2 different types of cells:
plasma cells and memory cells
Tc CELLS
 Cytotoxic T cells or Tc
cells destroy virally
infected calls and tumor
cells, and also implicated
in transplant rejection.
 These cells are also
known as CD8+ T cells,
since they express CD8
glycoprotein at their
surface.
 Question
41. Which of the following statements
concerning cytotoxic T cells is true?
A. They assist macrophages in killing
microorganisms
B. They possess antibodies on their surfaces
C. They possess CD8 surface markers
D. They possess CD28 surface markers
E. They secrete interferon γ
 Helper T cells
 Helper T cells or TH cells are the “middlemen” of
the adaptive immune system.
 They are also called CD4+ cells and are a target
of HIV infection.
 Once activated, they divide rapidly and secrete
small proteins called cytokines that regulate of
help the immune response.
 The loss of TH cells in HIV infection leads to AIDS
symptoms.
 Question
42. Which of the following statements
concerning “helper T cells” is true?
A. They possess membrane-bound antibodies
B. They can recognize and interact with
antigens in the blood
C. They produce numerous cytokines
D. They function only in cell-mediated immunity
E. Their activation depends on interferon γ
 What are Memory T cells?
 Memory T cells are a subset of antigen
specific T cells that persist long-term after
an infection has resolved.
 They quickly expand to large numbers of
effector T cells upon re-exposure to their
cognate antigen, thus providing the immune
system with “memory” against past
infections
 Memory cells maybe either CD4+ or CD8+.
 What do the Regulatory T cells
perform?
 Regulatory T cells are also known as
suppressor T cells.
 They are crucial for the maintenance of
immunological tolerance.
 Their major role is to shut down T cell
mediated immunity towards the end of an
immune reaction and to suppress auto-
reactive T cells that escaped the process of
negative selection in the thymus.
 What are the NKT cells for?
 Natural Killer T cells of NKT cells are a
special kind of lymphocytes that bridges the
adaptive immune system with the innate
immune system.
 They recognize glycolipid antigen presented
by a molecule called CD1a.
 Once activated, these cells can perform
functions ascribed to both TH and TC cells.
SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY
 Functions of the Parts of the Eye
 Lens – refraction and focusing
 Iris – regulated light entrance
 Pupil – opening in the iris
 Choroid – absorbs stray light
 Sclera – for protection
 Cornea – refraction of light
 Ciliary body – holds lens in place
 Retina – contains receptors
(rods and cones)
 Rods – for black and white vision
 Cones – for color vision
 Optic nerve – transmits impulse
 Ciliary muscle – for accommodation
 Principles of Image Formation
 Light waves travel at a speed of 186,000
miles per second. Light is reflected into the
eyes by objects within the field of vision.
 In order to achieve clear vision, light
reflected from objects within the visual field
is focused in to the retina of both eyes.
 The processes involved in producing a clear
image are refraction of the light rays and
accommodation of the eyes.
 Question
43. The cell type that carries neural
transmission from the retina to the brain is
the
A. amacrine cell
B. bipolar cell
C. horizontal cell
D. lateral geniculate cell
E. ganglion cell
 ACCOMMODATION
 A clear image of the object can be formed if
the eye accommodates for near vision
(objects closer than 6 m).
 The far point is the distance from the eye
that an object must be placed so that it can
be seen clearly without accommodation.
For a normal person, this is 6 m.
 The near point is about 8.3 cm from the eye.
 Question
44. The primary refractive structure of the
eye is the
A. lens
B. vitreous humor
C. aqueous humor
D. retina
E. cornea
Fovea & Macula
 Fovea centralis is
an oval, yellowish
area with a
depression where
there are only cone
cells.
 Macula is the area
immediately
surrounding the
fovea
 Question
45. The portion of the retina specialized for
highest acuity vision is the
A. optic papilla
B. area enriched by rods
C. lamina vitrea
D. ellipsoid
E. fovea
 Question
45.a. Rods and cones form synapses with
which of the following cells?
A. Amacrine
B. Bipolar
C. Ganglion
D. Muller
E. Horizontal cells
 Cytoarchitecture of the Retina
 Ganglion cells – the dendrites of these neurons
receive their input from the bipolar cells. Their axons
course along the retina.
 Amacrine cells – form complex synapses in the inner
plexiform layer at the junction of the bipolar and the
dendrites of the ganglion cells.
 Bipolar cells – synapse w/ the receptor terminals of
rods or cones in the outer plexiform layer.
 Horizontal cells – form a triad synapse at the junction
of the receptor terminals and the bipolar cells.
 Rods and Cones – the photosensitive cells of the
retina
Functions of the Rods & Cones
 Color vision. Only cones are involved with color
vision
 Sensitivity to light. Cones functions at high
light intensities as rods to low levels of
illumination. Rods are responsible for night
(scotopic) vision.
 Visual acuity. Cones have a high level of visual
acuity and are present in the fovea.
 Dark adaptation. When moving into a
darkened room, the eyes adapt slowly to lower
levels of illumination.
 Question
46. Aqueous humor is drained from the eye
via the
A. lacrimal duct
B. ciliary channels
C. optic papilla
D. central retinal vein
E. canal of Schlemn
Morphology of Retinal Components
 Question
48. What is the anterior opening in the middle
of iris and it is responsible in permitting
variable amount of light to enter eye?
A. Iris
B. Pupil
C. Lens
D. Fovea
E. Macula
 Size of the Pupils
 Pupil size influences accommodation by
controlling the amount of light entering the eye. In
a bright light the pupils are constricted. In a dim
light they are dilated.
 Contraction of the circular fibers constricts the
pupil, and contraction of the radiating fibers dilate
it.
 The size of the pupil is controlled by nerves of the
ANS. Sympathetic stimulation dilates the pupils
and parasympathetic stimulation causes
constriction.
What is Rhodopsin?
 Rhodopsin or visual
purple is a
photosensitive pigment
present only in the
rods. It is bleached by
bright light and when
this occurs the rids can
not be stimulated.
 Rhodopsin is quickly
reconstituted when an
adequate supply of Vit
A is available.
 The rate at which dark
adaptation takes place
is dependent upon the
rate of reconstitution of
rhodopsin.
PHYSIOLOGY OF HEARING
 How are sounds heard?
 Sound waves cause movements of the tympanic
membrane and these movements are both
conveyed and amplified by the middle ear ossicles
(malleus, incus, and stapes).
 The vibrations transmitted to the ossicles cause
the foot plate of the stapes to vibrate against the
oval window thereby transmitting them to the inner
ear.
 Thus air-borne sound waves are transferred to the
fluid in the inner ear.
 Question
49. Within the cochlea, hair cells of the inner
ear project their stereocilia into which
structure?
A. basilar membrane
B. Reissner’s membrane
C. tympanic membrane
D. vestibular membrane
E. tectorial membrane
Bony Labyrinth
 Question
50. What is the source of the endolymph in
the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear?
A. Reissner’s membrane
B. tympanic membrane or eardrum
C. helicotrema
D. endolymphatic sac
E. stria vascularis
 Question
51. The sensory receptors for the auditory
system
A. Hair cells
B. Outer pillar cells
C. Inner pillar cells
D. cells of Hensen
E. otolith cells
 Bony Labyrinth
 The bony labyrinth consists of 1 vestibule, 1
cochlea and 3 semicircular canals
 The vestibule is the expanded part nearest the
middle ear and it contains the oval and round
windows.
 Cochlea resembles a snail’s shell and it is the
auditory portion if the inner ear. its core component
is the Organ of Corti, the sensory Organ for hearing.
 Semicircular canals have no auditory function but
provides information about the position of the head,
contributing to maintenance of equilibrium and
balance.
 Question
52.The ability of the cochlea to distinguish
different frequencies of sound is principally
because of differences in properties of:
A. regions of the tectorial membrane
B. kinocilia on hair cells
C. regions of the tympanic membrane
D. synapses made by sensory neurons of
the spinal ganglion
E. regions of the basilar membrane
Physiology of Smell
 The sense of smell is
perceived when odorous
materials in the air are
carried into the nose and
stimulate the olfactory
cells.
 Perception of odor
decreases and eventually
ceases die to smell
adaptation
 The sense of smell may
affect the appetite
 Question
53.Which sensation is conveyed by
the first cranial nerve?
A. hearing or audition
B. smell or olfaction
C. taste or gustation
D. sight or vision
Olfaction or Taste: Receptor cells,
Supporting cells and Basal cells
 Psychophysics of Olfaction
Characteristics of Odorants
To be an effective odorant, a substance must be:
1. Volatile – chemicals are transported by air into
the nose.
2. Water soluble – (to some degree) in order to
penetrate the watery mucous layer lining the nasal
epith to reach the receptor cell membrane.
3. Lipid soluble – (to some degree) in order to
penetrate the CM of the olfactory receptor cells
 Primary Smell & Odor System
6 primary types of 7 Odor System
smell  Camphoraceous
 Fragrant  Musky
 Putrid  Floral
 Spicy  Minty
 Resinous  Etheral
 Burnt  Pungent
 Etheral  Putrid
 Threshold and Smell Adaptation
 Threshold. The olfactory receptors have
varying sensitivity to substances.
 Odor Discrimination. The olfactory system
has the capacity to discriminate various
chemical compounds. This ability depends
on the receptor sites on the membranes of
receptor cells.
 Smell Adaptation. Olfactory sensation
decreases very rapidly with continued
exposure to an odorant.
 54.True or False
 54. a Rapid adaptation to odors results from
adaptation of the olfactory receptors.

 54.b Each taste receptor responds to just one

of the five primary tastes.

 54.c Stereocilia of the inner hair cells

hyperpolarize when they bend toward and
depolarize when they bend away from their
tallest member.
PHYSIOLOGY OF TASTE
 How are taste perceived?
 Taste buds which consist of small bundles of cells
and nerve endings of cranial nerves
(VII, IX and X).
 The nerve cells are stimulated by chemical
substances in solution that enter the pores.
 The nerve impulses are transmitted to the
thalamus then to the taste area in the cerebral
cortex, one in each hemisphere, where taste is
perceived.
 4 fundamental sensations of taste have been
described: sweet, sour, bitter and salty.
 Question
55. In which of the following sensory
systems is the transducer and spike
generator located in the same cell?
A. Taste
B. Vision
C. Hearing
D. Touch
E. Olfaction
TASTE BUDS
 Taste
 The receptors (Gustatory) for taste and
smell are chemoreceptors that respond
to chemicals in solution

 Taste Buds and the Sense of Taste

- Primary sensory organ
- Approx~10,000 or so found on lingual

papillae
- Each bud has~40-100 epithelial cells
- Replaced every 7-10 days
(burns/friction)
 Taste Buds
– Taste buds, the sensory receptor organs for taste,
are located in the oral cavity with the majority
located on the tongue (Found within papillae on
tongue, pharynx, larynx)
– Taste hairs (cilia) extend into taste pores
– Taste sensations can be grouped into one of five
basic qualities: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami
– Synapse in medulla oblongata
– Physiology of Taste
 For a chemical to be tasted it must be dissolved
in salvia, move into the taste pore, and contact
the gustatory hairs
 Each taste sensation appears to have its own
special mechanism for transduction
 There are four basic taste
sensations

Sweet – sugars, saccharin, alcohol, and some

amino acids
Salt – metal ions
Sour – hydrogen ions
Bitter – alkaloids such as quinine and nicotine
Umami – a fifth taste (deliciousness/pleasant
taste)
 Taste bud distribution
 Most taste buds respond to 2-4 taste
qualities
 Bitter buds most sensitive (protective)
 Sugar & salt most pleasurable (CHO/
minerals)
 Taste receptors are fast adaptors (partial 3-
5 sec/ complete 1-5 min)
 Taste Buds and the Sense of
Taste
– Afferent fibers carrying taste information from
the tongue are found primarily in the facial
nerve and glossopharyngeal cranial nerves
– Taste impulses from the few taste buds found
on the epiglottis and the lower pharynx are
covered via the vagus nerve
– Taste is strongly influenced by smell and
stimulation of thermoreceptors,
mechanoreceptors, and nociceptors
 Question
56. In which of the following 5 primary tastes
is a meaty or savory taste, which has been
recently added to the list of primary tastes?
A. Sweet
B. Fatty
C. Bitter
D. Salty
E. Umami
 CARDIOVASCULAR
PHYSIOLOGY
Cardiodynamics refers to the mechanical
events that are associated with the contraction
of the heart.
The function if the heart is to maintain a
constant circulation if blood throughout the
body.
The heart acts as a pump and its action
consists of events known as the cardiac cycle.
The normal number of cardiac cycles per
minute ranges from 60-80.
 Structure of the Heart

 adult human heart = 300-350 g

 built upon a “collagenous skeleton” located at
atrioventricular junction (fibrotendinous ring)
 the ring isolates the atria electrically from the
ventricles, except at the bundle of His
Cardiac and Skeletal Muscles
Similarities
 Both- Striated muscle
 Both use proteins actin and myosin
 Both contract in response to an action
potential on the sarcolemmal membrane
 Cardiac and Skeletal Muscles
Differences
Skeletal muscle Cardiac Muscle
 Neurogenic  Myogenic
(motor neuron-end plate- (action potential originates
acetylcholine) within the muscle)
 Insulated from each  Gap-junctions
other
 Contracts in all or
none fashion  Action potential is longer
 Short action potential
Cardiac Muscles
 Cardiac Myocyte
 10-20 m in diameter and 50-100 m long
 single central nucleus
 the cell is branched, attached to adjacent cells in an end-
to-end fashion (intercalated disc)
 desmosomes (proteoglycan glue)
 gap junction (region of close apposition)
 Contractile
Action potential leads to vigorous force development
and/or mechanical shortening
 Conductile
initiation or propagation of action potentials
 Sarcomere
basic contractile unit within the myocyte
 refers to the unit from one Z band to the next
 resting length:1.8-2.4 m
 composed of interdigitating filaments
– thick myosin protein
– thin actin protein
Sarcolemma contains a number of ion channels and
pumps that contribute to overall Ca 2+ levels within the
myocyte
 Transverse Tubular System
(T-tubules)
 the sarcolemma of the myocyte invaginates
to form an extensive tubular network
 extends the extracellular space into the
interior of the cell
 transmit the electrical stimulus rapidly
(well developed in ventricular myocytes but
is scanty in atrial and Purkinje cells)
THE HEART
 Circulation of Blood
– Continuous circulation
– Force of circulation due to pumping action of
heart
– From left ventricle  Aorta  Branches &
Sub branches  Artery  Small artery 
Arteriole  Capillaries  CELLS Venules
 Small veins union of many veins 
Superior & Inferior vena cava  Right auricle
 Right ventricle  Pulmonary artery 
Lungs (oxygenation)  Pulmonary veins 
Left auricle  Left ventricle
Conducting System of the Heart
 The heart has an intrinsic system whereby the
muscle is stimulated to contract without the need
for a nerve supply from the brain.
 The special conducting system of the heart is
composed of:
 1. SA Node- pacemaker of the heart because it
initiates impulses of contraction
 2. AV Node – us stimulated by the impulse of
contraction that sweeps over the atrial
myocardium
 3. AV Bundle oh His – ensures a coordinate
contraction between the muscles of the atria and
muscles of the ventricles
PACEMAKERS (in order of their
inherent rhythm)

 Sino-atrial (SA) node

 Atrio-ventricular (AV) node
 Bundle of His
 Bundle branches
 Purkinje fibers
 Question
57. In a resting healthy man, the heart pumps
how many liters of blood per minute?
A.0.9
B.2-3
C.5-6
D.8-10
E.15-20
 Conduction System
Conductile Fibers
 Sinoatrial (SA) node 100-110/min
 Atrioventricular (AV) node 40-60/min
 AV bundle (Bundle of His) 20-40/min
 Left and right bundle branch
 Purkinje fibers (rapid conduction) 20-40/min

Specialized cardiac muscle cells

Cardiac Action Potential
 Cardiac action potential
begin at the SA node
(upper left) and travel to
the AV node in the middle,
thence they proceed down
the Bundle of His to the
Purkinje fiber.

 Since the action potentials

of these cells are firing
together, their electrical
activity can be detected by
ECG trace shown at the
bottom.
 Question
58. Which of the following is the proper sequence
of cardiac excitation?
A. SA node AV node Atrial
myocardium Bundle of His
Purkinje fibers ventricular
myocardium
B. SA Node Atrial myocardium AV
Node Bundle of His Purkinje fibers

ventricular myocardium
Phases of a Cardiac Action Potential
 The sharp rise in voltage
“0” corresponds to the
influx of Na+, whereas the
2 decays(“1” and “3”)
respectively correspond
to the sodium channel in
activation and the
repolarizing efflux of K+.
 The characteristic
plateau (2) results from
the opening of voltage-
sensitive calcium
channels.
 Heart Sounds
 The opening and closure of the 4 cardiac valves produces
sounds which are heard best with the aid of the
stethoscope.
 First heart sound- “lub” sound is caused by the closure of
the AV valves and opening of the SL valves
 Second heart sound-”dub” sound is caused by the closure
of the SL valves and opening of the AV valves
 Third sound- is caused by the turbulence associated with
rapid filling of the ventricles shortly after the opening of the
AV valves
 Fourth sound- is caused by the turbulence associated with
the passage of blood from the atria into the ventricles
during atrial systole.
Where to hear the heart sounds?
 The 4 locations on the anterior thorax where
heart sounds are best heard are:
1. Aortic area (aortic SL valve)
2. Pulmonary area (pulmonary SL valve)
3. Tricuspid area (right AV valve)
4. Mitral area (left Av valve or bicuspid

valve)
 Question
59. The “lub” sound of the heart is caused by
the closure of the
a) pulmonary semilunar valves
b) atrioventricular valves
c) aortic semilunar valves
d) a and b
e) all of them
HOW IS BLOOD PRESSURE
MEASURED?
 Blood Pressure
 The determination of an individual’s blood
pressure is one of the most useful clinical
measurement that can be taken.
 Systolic pressure is the highest pressure in the
artery produced during the heart’s contraction
phase.
 Diastolic pressure is the lowest pressure in the
artery produced during the heart’s relaxation
phase.
 Pulse pressure is the difference between the
systolic and diastolic pressures.
An Electrocardiogram
The cardiac cycle
consists of a period of
relaxation called
diastole followed by a
period of contraction
called systole.

During diastole, the

heart chambers are
filled with blood and
during systole , the
blood is pumped
forward into the
arteries.
ECG
 P wave- represents the spread of
electrical activity over the atria
after the initial depolarization od
the SA node

 QRS complex- represents the

spread of negativity
wave(depolarization) through the
ventricular musculature. A small
amount of atrial reolarization also
occurs at the same time
 T wave- represents the
repolarization of the ventricular
musculature . It is of longer
duration and lower amplitude than
the depolarization wave (QRS
wave)which indicates that the
ventricular repolarization process
is less synchronized and slower
than the deolarization process.
ECG: Normal and Abnormal
 ECGs, Abnormal

Extrasystole : note inverted QRS complex, misshapen QRS

and T and absence of a P wave preceding this contraction.
 ECGs, Abnormal

Arrhythmia: conduction failure at AV node

No pumping action occurs

 Question
60. An ECG that reveals no P wave in any
leads indicates a block of impulses coming
from the
a) SA node
b) bundle of His
c) Purkinje fibers
d) left bundle branch
e) ventricular muscle
Sustained hypertension causes brain
damage when:
 Microaneurysms rupture

 Pulsation of hard tortuous arteries damages

brain tissue in their immediate vicinity

 Cerebral edema in malignant hypertension

leads to hypertensive encephalopathy

 Intracerebral hemorrhage
PHYSIOLOGY
of the
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
The Nervous System

 A network of billions of nerve cells linked

together in a highly organized fashion to
form the rapid control center of the body.
 Functions include:
– Integrating center for homeostasis,
movement, and almost all other body
functions.
– The mysterious source of those traits that we
think of as setting humans apart from animals
Basic Functions of the Nervous System
1. Sensation
 Monitors changes/events occurring in and outside
the body. Such changes are known as stimuli and
the cells that monitor them are receptors.
2. Integration
 The parallel processing and interpretation of
sensory information to determine the appropriate
response
3. Reaction
 Motor output.
– The activation of muscles or glands (typically via
the release of neurotransmitters (NTs))
 Functions of Nervous system

– Control over voluntary and involuntary functions /

actions.
– To control body movements, respiration, circulation,
digestion, hormone secretion, body temperature
– To receive stimuli from sense organs, perceive
them and respond accordingly
– Higher mental functions like memory, receptivity,
perception & thinking.
Organization of the
Nervous System
 2 big initial divisions:
1. Central Nervous System
 The brain + the spinal cord
– The center of integration and
control
2. Peripheral Nervous System
 The nervous system outside of the
brain and spinal cord
 Consists of:
– 31 Spinal nerves
 Carry info to and from the
spinal cord
– 12 Cranial nerves
 Carry info to and from the brain
 Nervous system
– Central processing unit of body. Controls and
balance of body functions.
 Divisions
– Central nervous system (CNS)
– Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
– Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

 Components
– Nerve cell
– Sensory nerve
– Brain
– Motor nerve
– End organ
 Question
61. The 2 divisions of the autonomic nervous
system are the _______________nervous
system, which dominates in “fight-or-flight”
situations, and the ____________nervous
system, which dominates in “rest-and-
digest” situations.
 Peripheral Nervous System

 Responsible for communication btwn the CNS and

the rest of the body.
 Can be divided into:
– Sensory Division
 Afferent division
– Conducts impulses from receptors to the CNS
– Informs the CNS of the state of the body interior and exterior
– Sensory nerve fibers can be somatic (from skin, skeletal muscles
or joints) or visceral (from organs w/i the ventral body cavity)
– Motor Division
 Efferent division
– Conducts impulses from CNS to effectors (muscles/glands)
– Motor nerve fibers
 Motor Efferent Division

 Can be divided further:

– Somatic nervous system
 VOLUNTARY (generally)
 Somatic nerve fibers that conduct impulses from the
CNS to skeletal muscles
– Autonomic nervous system
 INVOLUNTARY (generally)
 Conducts impulses from the CNS to smooth muscle,
cardiac muscle, and glands.
 Autonomic Nervous System
 Can be divided into:
– Sympathetic Nervous
System
 “Fight or Flight”
– Parasympathetic
Nervous System
 “Rest and Digest”

These 2 systems are antagonistic.

Typically, we balance these 2 to keep ourselves in a
state of dynamic balance.
We’ll go further into the difference btwn these 2
later!
 Autonomic nervous system
(Involuntary nervous system)
– It has control over
 Digestion
 Respiration
 Circulation
 Hormone secretion
 Maintenance of body temperature
 Maintenance of water balance

 Peripheral nervous system

– 12 pairs of cranial nerves from brain (cranial
nerves)
– 31 pairs of spinal nerves from spinal cord
(spinal nerves)
 1.
Nervous Tissue

 Highly cellular
– How does this compare
to the other 3 tissue
types?
 2 cell types
1. Neurons
2.
 Functional, signal
conducting cells
2. Neuroglia
 Supporting cells
 Neuroglia
 Outnumber neurons by about
10 to 1 (the guy on the right had
an inordinate amount of them).
 6 types of supporting cells
– 4 are found in the CNS:
1. Astrocytes
 Star-shaped, abundant, and
versatile
 Guide the migration of
developing neurons
 Act as K+ and NT buffers
 Involved in the formation of the
blood brain barrier
 Function in nutrient transfer
 Neuroglia

2. Microglia
 Specialized immune cells that act
as the macrophages of the CNS
 Why is it important for the CNS to
have its own army of immune
cells?
3. Ependymal Cells
 Low columnar epithelial-esque
cells that line the ventricles of the
brain and the central canal of the
spinal cord
 Some are ciliated which
facilitates the movement of
cerebrospinal fluid
Neuroglia

4.Oligodendrocytes
 Produce the
myelin sheath
which provides
the electrical
insulation for
certain neurons
in the CNS
Neuroglia
2 types of glia in the PNS
1. Satellite cells
• Surround clusters of
neuronal cell bodies in the
PNS
• Unknown function
2. Schwann cells
• Form myelin sheaths
around the larger nerve
fibers in the PNS.
• Vital to neuronal
regeneration
The NEURON
 The nervous
system is
composed of
neurons, which
produce and
conduct
electrochemical
impulses and
supporting cells,
which assist the
functions of
neurons.
 The functional and structural unit
of the nervous system Neurons
 Specialized to conduct information from one part of the
body to another
 There are many, many different types of neurons but most
have certain structural and functional characteristics in
common:

- Cell body (soma)

- One or more
specialized, slender
processes
(axons/dendrites)
- An input region
(dendrites/soma)
- A conducting
component (axon)
- A secretory (output)
region (axon terminal)
Basic nerve cell structure
 Soma

 Contains nucleus plus most

normal organelles.
 Biosynthetic center of the
neuron.
 Contains a very active and
developed rough endoplasmic
reticulum which is responsible
In the soma above, notice the small
for the synthesis of ________. black circle. It is the nucleolus, the site
– The neuronal rough ER is of ribosome synthesis. The light
referred to as the Nissl body. circular area around it is the nucleus.
 Contains many bundles of The mottled dark areas found
protein filaments (neurofibrils) throughout the cytoplasm are the Nissl
which help maintain the shape, substance.
structure, and integrity of the
cell.
3 main types of nerve cells

sensory relay motor

neuron neuron neuron
 Relay neuron

Carries impulses from sensory nerves to

motor nerves.
 Motor neuron

Carries impulses from CNS to effector e.g.

muscle to bring about movement or gland to
bring about secretion of hormone e.g ADH
 Communication

 Thus, neurons need to be able to conduct

information in 2 ways:
1. From one end of a neuron to the other end.
2. Across the minute space separating one
neuron from another. (What is this called?)
 The 1st is accomplished electrically via APs.
 The 2nd is accomplished chemically via
neurotransmitters.
 What is an action potential?
 The synchronized opening and closing of Na + and
K+ gates result in the movement of electrical
charges that generates a nerve impulse or action
potential.

 Action potentials reach the end of each neuron

where these electrical signals are either
transmitted directly to the next cell in the sequence
via gap junctions, or are responsible for activating
the release of specialized neurotransmitter
chemicals.
 Terminologies
 Action potential – another name for “spike” potential or
nerve impulse
 Depolarization – upward oscilloscope deflection or Na+
conductance is highest (hypopolarization)
 All-or-None is when the action potential amplitude never
varies
 Repolarization – at this point, Na+ conductance is
falling rapidly and K+ conductance has peaked.
 Absolute refractory period – time of depolarization
(Na+ gates open)
 Relative refractory period – time of depolarization
(K+ gates open)
 Hyperpolarization – downward oscilloscope deflection
below resting
 Rates of AP Conduction
1. Which do you think has a faster rate of AP
conduction – myelinated or unmyelinated axons?
2. Which do you think would conduct an AP faster –
an axon with a large diameter or an axon with a
small diameter?
The answer to #1 is a myelinated axon. If you can’t see why, then
answer this question: could you move 100ft faster if you walked heel to
toe or if you bounded in a way that there were 3ft in between your feet
with each step?

The answer to #2 is an axon with a large diameter. If you can’t see

why, then answer this question: could you move faster if you walked
through a hallway that was 6ft wide or if you walked through a hallway
that was 1ft wide?
 Types of Nerve Fibers
1. Group A
– Axons of the somatic sensory neurons and motor
neurons serving the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints.
– Large diameters and thick myelin sheaths.
 How does this influence their AP conduction?
2. Group B
– Type B are lightly myelinated and of intermediate
diameter.
3. Group C
– Type C are unmyelinated and have the smallest
diameter.
– Autonomic nervous system fibers serving the visceral
organs, visceral sensory fibers, and small somatic
sensory fibers are Type B and Type C fibers.
 Question
62. Based on these values, the resting
membrane potential is approximately
A. -60 mV
B. -70 mV
C. -75 mV
D. -80 mV
E. -90 mV
 Membrane Potential
 The permeability properties of the cell membrane,
the presence of non-diffusible negatively charged
molecules in the cell, and the action of the Na +/K+
pumps, produce an unequal distribution of charges
across the membrane.

 As a result, the inside of the cell is negatively

charged compared to the outside.

 This difference in charge, or potential difference, is

known as the membrane potential.
 An action potential at one node of Ranvier
causes inwards currents that move down
the axon, depolarizing the membrane and
stimulating a new action potential at the next
node of Ranvier.
 Reflex Arc
The reflex arc is a hard wired, unconscious rapid response
to external stimulus involving spinal nerves and effector
cell.
A reflex is an automatic, involuntary response of an
organism to a stimulus.
The entire nervous system is composed of innumerable
reflex arcs.
Babinski Reflex
 What is saltatory conduction?
An action potential at one node of Ranvier
causes inwards currents that move down the
action, depolarizing the membrane and
stimulating a new action potential at the next
node of Ranvier.
The Synapse
SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
 Question
63. At axon terminals, neurotransmitters are
stored in
A. mitochondria
B. dendritic spines
C. endosomes
D. synaptic clefts
E. synaptic vesicles
Neurotransmitters
 Question
64. Which neurotransmitter is released at
preganglionic autonomic fibers?
A.Acethylcholine
B.Nicotine
C.Norepinephrine
D.muscarine
 Question
64.a.Epinephrine is released at which
synapse:
A. electrical synapse
B. adrenergic synapse
C. cholinergic synapse
D. motor neurons
What are the functions of the parts
of the brain?
 Cerebrum
– Biggest part of brain, divided into two hemispheres
– Contra lateral control
– Outer surface is grey due to cells
– Internally white due to fibers
– Surface is folded to increase the area
 Functions of cerebrum
– Intellect, memory, will power, imagination, emotion &
other psychological functions
– Receive and perceive the stimuli
– To give command for reaction with the help of past
experience
– To control over other parts of nervous system
Cerebellum and
surrounding
regions
A- Midbrain
B- Pons
C-Medulla
D- Spinal Cord
E-Fourth ventricle
F-Arbor Vitae
G-Tonsil
H-Anterior Lobe
I-Posterior Lobe
 Cerebellum
– Situated below and behind the cerebrum
 Functions of cerebellum
– Controls tone muscles
– Helps coordination of body movements
– Helps balancing the body

 Mid brain
– Underneath the cerebrum and above pons
 Functions of mid brain
– To control involuntary functions
 Pons
– Below mid brain
 Functions of pons
– Control of consciousness
– Control level of concentration

 Medulla oblongata
– Lowest part of CNS just above the spinal cord
 Functions of Medulla oblongata
– Control of respiration
– Control of circulation
– Control of swallowing and vomiting
PULMONARY
PHYSIOLOGY
Importance of Respiratory System
Sign of Life
The most Vital function

Respiration
is
INDEPENDENT
but can be controlled to some extent
 Overall Functions
 Movement of
gases
 Gas exchange
 Transport of
gas (oxygen
and carbon
dioxide)
Alveloli provide an enormous
surface area for gas diffusion.
 Respiratory System Functions
 Gas exchange: Oxygen enters blood and carbon
dioxide leaves
 Regulation of blood pH: Altered by changing blood
carbon dioxide levels
 Voice production: Movement of air past vocal folds
makes sound and speech
 Olfaction: Smell occurs when airborne molecules
drawn into nasal cavity
 Protection: Against microorganisms by preventing
entry and removing them
Tracheobronchial Tree
 Tracheobronchial Tree
 Conducting zone – Trachea, bronchi and
bronchioles deliver air to the respiratory zone
– Trachea to terminal bronchioles which is ciliated for
removal of debris
– Passageway for air movement
– Cartilage holds tube system open and smooth muscle
controls tube diameter
 Respiratory zone – gas exchange w/ the
blood occurs
– Respiratory bronchioles to alveoli
– Site for gas exchange
 Physical Aspects of Ventilation
 The movement of air into and out of the
lungs occurs as a result of pressure
differences induced by the changes in lung
volumes.

 Ventilation is thus influenced by the physical

properties of the lungs, including their
compliance, elasticity and surface tension.
 Compliance, Elasticity and
Surface Tension affects
Ventilation
 Compliance – refers to the ease with which
the lungs expand
 Elasticity – refers to the tendency to recoil
after distension
 Surface tension – of the fluid in the alveoli
exerts a force directed inward, which acts to
resist distention
 Respiratory Rate/Volume
 Tidal Volume (500 mls)

 Respiratory Rate
(12 breaths/minute)

 Minute Respiratory
Volume (6000 mls/min )
 Mechanism of Breathing
 Inspiration and expiration are accomplished
by the contraction and relaxation of striated
muscles.
 Spirometry aids in the diagnosis of a
number of pulmonary disorders
 Asthma results from bronchoconstriction,
emphysema and chronic bronchitis are
frequently referred to collectively as COPD
 PULMONARY VOLUMES
 Tidal Volume (TV) – the amount of the air inspired
or expired during the quiet respiratory cycle. (500
ml)
 Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) – the amount of
air which can inspired above and beyond that
which is inspired during a normal quiet inspiration.
(3300 ml)
 Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) – the maximal
amount of air which may be expired following a
normal quiet expiration. (1100 ml)
 Residual Volume (RV) – the amount of air
remaining in the lungs after a maximal expiratory
effort. (1200 ml)
 PULMONARY CAPACITIES
 Total Lung Capacity (TLC) – the amount of air
contained in the lungs at the end of a maximal
inspiration.
 Vital Capacity (VC) – the maximum amount of air
which can be expired after a maximal inspiration
 Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) – the amount
of air remaining in the lungs after a normal
expiration.
 Inspiratory Capacity (IC) – the maximal amount of
air which can be inspired after a normal expiration.
A Spirogram showing Lung volumes
and Capacities
 Regulation of Breathing
 The motor neurons that stimulate the respiratory
muscles are controlled by 2 major descending
pathways: one that controls voluntary breathing,
and one that controls involuntary breathing.

 The unconscious, rhythmic control of breathing is

influenced by sensory feedback from receptors
sensitive to the PCO2, pH and PO2 of arterial blood.
 Question
65. Alveolar ventilation is equal to
A. dead space ventilation
B. tidal volume times respiratory rate
C. minute ventilation
D. CO2 production/minute
E. minute ventilation minus dead space
ventilation
PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
 The complex of
digestive processes
gradually simplifies
the foods eaten until
they are in a form
suitable for
absorption.
 After they are
absorbed , the
nutrients are used
in the synthesis on
the constituents of
the body.
 Digestion is chemical and mechanical
process on the ingested food to prepare it for
assimilation by the body.

 Function of Digestive System

– Ingestion
– Chewing
– Swallowing
– Digestion
– Absorption
– Excretion of undigested food
 Peristalsis
 Peristalsis is a coordinated pattern of smooth
muscle contraction and relaxation.
 Function: Peristalsis helps move food through the
pharynx and esophagus and within the stomach.
Peristalsis plays a minor role in propelling food
through the intestine.
 Mechanics: During peristalsis, contraction of
the a small portion of proximal muscle is
followed immediately by relaxation of the
muscle just distal to it. The resulting wavelike
motion moves food along the GI tract in a
proximal to distal direction
 Question
66. Passage of a bolus through the esophagus into
the stomach is facilitated by which of the following?
A. peristaltic activity of the esophageal
muscularis externa
B. peristaltic activity of the gastric muscularis
mucosae
C. reflux through the pharyngoesophageal
sphincter
D. Smooth muscle in the esophageal
muscularis mucosae
 HCl Secretion
Functions of HCl:
1. HCl participates in the breakdown of protein
2. It provides an optimal pH for the action of
pepsin
3. It hinders the growth of pathogenic bacteria.
Mechanism of HCl secretion: HCl being formed
by the parietal cells. Cl- and K+ are secreted into
canaliculi by separate transporters, w/c may be
channels or carriers. H+ is exchanged by an
ATPase active transport process.
 Gastrin Secretion
 Functions of Gastrin:
1. Gastrin stimulates HCl secretion
2. It increases gastric and intestinal motility
3. It increases pancreatic secretions
4. It is necessary for the proper growth of
GI mucosa
 Regulation: Vagal stimulation, pH,
enterogastrones

Regulation
 Question
67. Which one of the following stimulates the
production of HCl in the stomach?
A. Somatostatin
B. Gastrin
C. Secretin
D. Cholecystokinin
E. Urogastrone
 Motility
 Contractile Activity of the smooth muscles
lining the SI serves 2 major functions:
1. Mixing the chyme w/ the digestive juices
and bile to facilitate digestion and absorption
2. Propelling the chyme from the
duodenum to the colon
 Transit time: About 2-4 hrs for the chyme to
move from one end of the SI to the other
 Segmentation is the most common type of
SI movement
 Question
68. The motility pattern primarily
responsible for the propulsion of chyme
along the small intestine is:
a) the migrating motor complex (MMC)
b) peristaltic waves
c) myogenic contractions
d) haustrations
e) segmentation
 Segmentation
 During segmentation, about 2 cm of the
intestinal wall contracts, forcing the chyme
back toward the stomach and toward the
colon.
 This back-and-forth movement enables the
chyme to become thoroughly mixed w/ the
digestive juices and to make contact w/ the
absorptive surface of the intestinal mucosa.
 Segmentation contractions occur about 12
times/min in the duodenum and 8 times/min in
the ileum. Contractions last for 5-6 seconds
 Question
69. Which of the following can occur
without brain stem coordination?
a) Chewing
b) Swallowing
c) Primary esophageal peristalsis
d) Vomiting
e)Gastric emptying
 Bile Secretions
 Function: Bile is required for the digestion and
absorption of fats and for the excretion of
water-insoluble substances such as
cholesterol and bilirubin.
 Formation: Bile is formed in the liver, between
250 and 1100 ml are secreted daily.
 Storage: Although it is secreted continuously,
it is stored in the gall bladder during the
interdigestive period.
 Release: Bile is released into the duodenum
RENAL PHYSIOLOGY
 Kidneys
 The kidneys maintain the constant state of the
body’s internal environment by regulating the
volume and composition of the extracellular fluids.
 To accomplish this, the kidneys balance precisely
the intake, production, excretion, and consumption
of many organic and inorganic compounds.
 The balancing requires that the kidneys maintain
the volume and composition of body fluids by
the conservation and excretion of water and
solutes to meet bodily requirements.
 Functions of kidney
– Expulsion of waste products and toxins
– Maintenance of water level in body
– To maintain reaction of blood
– Expulsion of toxic medicine
– To maintain balance of salts and minerals
– Formation and release of renin and erythropoietin
– Vitamin D activation
– Gluconeogenesis

 Functional unit of kidney – Nephron

– 10,00,000 in each kidney
– Nephron consists of a tuft of 20-40 csapillary loops
 The functional unit of the
kidney: the nephron
 Total of about 2.5 million in the 2 kidneys.
 Each nephron consists of 2 functional
components:
– The tubular component (contains what
will eventually become urine)
– The vascular component (blood supply)

 The mechanisms by which kidneys perform

their functions depends upon the
relationship between these two
components.
 Question
70. The countercurrent multiplier system in the
kidney involves the exchange of water and ions
between the renal interstitium and
A. the blood in the vasa recta
B. the blood in the peritubular capillary
network
C. the filtrate in the PCT
D. the filtrate in the loop of Henle
E. the filtrate in the medullary collecting
tubule
 Renin & Erythropoietin (EPO)
 Renin – a proteolytic enzyme produced and
stored in the juxtaglomerular apparatus that
surrounds each arteriole as it enters a
glomerulus. The enzyme affects the blood
pressure by catalyzing the change of
angiotensinogen to angiotensin. NV = 2.9-10.8
mg/ml/hr
 Erythropoietin – a glycoprotein hormone that
acts to stimulate and to regulate the production
of erythrocytes, thus increase the the O2-
carrying capacity of the blood
 Clinical Applications
 Diuretic drugs are used clinically to increase
the urine volume and thus to lower the blood
volume and pressure
 In glomerulonephritis, the glomeruli can
permit the leakage of plasma proteins into
the urine
 Hemodialysis or renal dialysis is used to
treat people with renal insufficiency.
 Question
71.Lutenizing hormone exerts which one of the
following physiologic effects?
A. It triggers completion of the second
meiotic division by secondary oocytes
B. It triggers ovulation
C. It suppresses release of estrogens
D. It induces primary follicles to become
secondary follicles
 Question
72.. Colostrum contains which of the following
antibodies:
A. IgA
B. IgD
C. IgE
D. IgG
E. igM
 Question
73..Which of the following functions is attributed
to the Sertoli cells?
A. Secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone
B. Secretion of testosterone
C. Secretion of androgen-binding protein
D. Secretion of luteinizing hormone
E. Secretion of interstitial cell stimulating
hormone
 Question
74. Testosterone is produced by which of the
following?
A. Insterstitial cells of Leydig
B. Sertoli cells
C. Spermatogonia
D. Spermatids
E. Spermatocytes
 Question
75. Inhibin, a hormone that inhibits synthesis
and release of FSH is secreted by which of
the following structures?
A. Prostate gland
B. Sertoli cells
C. Seminal vesicles
D. Bulbourethral glands
E. Insterstitial cells of Leydig
 Physiology
of the
Endocrine System

This system is made up of widely

distributed organs whose secretions
(called HORMONES) are poured into the
blood to reach the target cells
 The Endocrine System
 Controls many body  Derives its name from the
functions fact that various glands
– exerts control by release hormones directly
releasing special into the blood, which in
chemical substances turn transports the
into the blood called hormones to target tissues
hormones via ducts.
– Hormones affect other
endocrine glands or
body systems
 Functions of the Pituitary Gland
 The two segments are:
 The Pituitary Gland is – Posterior Pituitary:
divided into 2 areas, which  produces oxytocin and
differ antidiuretic hormone
(ADH)
– structurally and – Anterior Pituitary:
functionally  produces thyroid-
– each area has separate stimulating hormone
types of hormone (TSH)
 growth hormone (GH)
production.
 adrenocorticotropin
(ACTH)
 follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH)
 Functions of the Pituitary Gland
 The pituitary gland is an important link between
the NS and the endocrine system and releases
many hormones which affect growth, sexual
development, metabolism, and the system of
reproduction.
 Hormones secreted by the pituitary gland:
 The Posterior lobe secretes: ADH and oxytocin
 The Anterior lobe secretes: GH, TSH, ACTH,
Prolactin, MSH and Gonadotrophin (includes FSH,
LH and ICSH or interstitial cell stimulating
hormone)
 Question
76. Growth hormone (GH) has all of the
following effects on protein metabolism
EXCEPT:
a) increased membrane transport of AA
b) increased translation
c) Increased transcription
d) Increased protein synthesis
e) increased protein catabolism
 Functions of the Thyroid Gland and
Parathyroid Gland
 The thyroid gland secretes thyroxine (T4)
and triiodothyronine (T3), which are needed
for proper growth and development and
which are primarily responsible for
determining the basal metabolic rate (BMR).

 The parathyroid gland secretes parathyroid

hormone (PTH) which helps to raise the
blood calcium concentration.
 Question
77. The most biologically active iodothyronine
secreted by the thyroid follicles is:
a) T3 or tri-iodothyyronine
b) T4 or Thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine)
c) rT3
d) thyroglobulin
e) triodothyroacetic acid
 Functions of the Pancreas
 Pancreas  Islets of
– a key gland located in Langerhans
the folds of the – specialized tissues in
duodenum which the endocrine
– has both endocrine and functions of the
exocrine functions pancreas occurs
– secretes several key – include 3 types of
digestive enzymes cells:
 alpha ( )
 beta ()
 delta ()
– each secretes an
important hormone.
 Functions of the α-Cells
 Alpha () cells  The surge of glucagon
release glucagon, stimulates the liver to
essential for controlling release glucose stores
blood glucose levels. (from glycogen and
 When blood glucose additional storage
levels fall,  cells  sites).
the amount of  Also, glucagon
glucagon in the blood . stimulates the liver to
manufacture glucose -
 gluconeogenesis.
 Question
78.Epinephrine is a potent hyperglycemic
agent due to its ability to:
a) stimulate glucagon secretion
b) stimulate ACTH secretion
c) stimulate hepatic and muscle
glycogenolysis
d) inhibit insulin secretion
 Functions of the β-Cells
 Beta Cells () release  Insulin is rapidly
insulin (antagonistic to broken down by the
glucagon). liver and must be
 Insulin  the rate at secreted constantly.
which various body  Delta Cells () produce
cells take up glucose. somatostatin, which
Thus, insulin lowers inhibits both glucagon
the blood glucose and insulin.
level.
 Functions of the Adrenal Glands
 Adrenal Glands  the Adrenal Medulla
– 2 small glands that sit secretes the
atop both kidneys. catecholamine
hormones
– Each has 2 divisions, norepinephrine and
each with different epinephrine (closely
functions. related to the
sympathetic component
of the autonomic
nervous system).
The Adrenal Gland
 Question
79. The major steroid hormone secreted
by the inner zone of the fetal adrenal
cortex is:
a) cortisol
b) progesterone
c) estriol
d) corticosterone
e) DHEA
 Endocrine Functions of
Gonads
 Gonads and Ovaries:  Ovaries:
– the endocrine glands – located in the
associated with human abdominal cavity
reproduction. adjacent to the uterus.
– Female ovaries produce – Under the control of LH
eggs and FSH from the
– Male gonads produce anterior pituitary they
sperm manufacture
 estrogen
 both have endocrine  protesterone
functions.
 The Pineal Gland
 Also called epiphysis cerebri
 Secretes melatonin
 Question
80. What hormone has marked diurnal
rhythm, blood levels up to 10 times greater
at night than during the day, decreases
pigmentation of the skin, and when injected
causes drowsiness?
A. prolactin
B. estrin
C. insulin
D. melatonin
E. calcitonin
 As Examinees
You should view your forthcoming
Licensure Examinations
as opportunities
to display your gained knowledge
and
be able to use them as tools
for developing prescriptions
for your
future dental practice!
 “The bottom line of your Review Course
is still your strong determination and
courageous confidence to aim high,
to build up all the necessary competence
to live up to the ideals
of being
Dental Professionals!
Sustain all the efforts for the growth and excellence
of Dentistry, your chosen profession and vocation!”
GOD BLESS YOU ALL!
“The world is filled with so much good
That brings us joy and pleasure
But true fulfillment only comes
When Christ our Lord
We pray and treasure!”