Atomic Structure

Md. Jamal Hossain

Asst. Professor & Asst. Proctor (SUB)
Department of Pharmacy
State University of Bangladesh
References
1. Modern inorganic chemistry-R. D. Madan
2. Modern Inorganic Chemistry - S. Z. Haider
3. Internet
Atom
• the smallest component of an element having
the chemical properties of that element. Atom is
first proposed by Democratus.
• Atoms are composed of 2 regions:
• Nucleus: the center of the atom that contains
the mass of the atom.
• Electron cloud: region that surrounds the
nucleus that contains most of the space in the
atom.
Nucleus
• The nucleus contains 2 of the 3 subatomic
particles:

• Protons: positively charged subatomic

particles
• Neutrons: neutrally charged subatomic
particles
Proton
• Discovery of Proton: The existence of protons in the
atoms was shown by E. Goldstein. The proton is a
positively charged particle found in the atoms of all the
element.

• Characteristics of a Proton
• The two important characteristics of a proton are its
mass and charge. These are described below.
1. Mass of a Proton: The relative mass of a proton is 1u.
The absolute mass of a proton is 1.67 ×10-24 gram.
2. Charge of a Proton: So the absolute charge of a proton
is 1.6×10-19 coulomb of positive charge. The relative
charge of a proton is +1.
Neutron
• Discovery of Neutron: The Discovery of Neutron
particle by Chadwick in 1932. The neutron is a neutral
particle found in the nucleus of an atom. The sub atomic
particle not present in a hydrogen atom is neutron.

• Characteristics of a Neutron
• The two important characteristics of a neutron are its
mass and charge. These are described below.
1. Mass of a Neutron: The relative mass of a neutron is
1u. The absolute mass of a neutron is 1.67×10-24 gram.
2. Charge of a Neutron: Neutron has no charge. It is
electrically neutral.
Electron
• Discovery of Electron: The existence of electrons in
an atom was shown by J. J. Thomson in 1897. The
electron is a negatively charged particle found in the
atoms of all the element.

• Characteristics of an electron
• The two important characteristics of an electron are its
mass and charge. These are described below.
1. Mass of an electron: The relative mass of an electron is
1/1840 u. The absolute mass of an electron is, however
9.1 ×10-28 gram.
2. Charge of an electron: The absolute charge on an
electron is 1.6 ×10-19 Coulomb of negative charge. The
relative charge of an electron is, -1.
Notes: mass of e- is tiny relative to p+ and n.
p+ and n have same mass (almost).
e- and p+ have same charge, but opposite sign.
Atomic number
• Atomic number indicates the number of protons
in an atom.
• Ex: Hydrogen’s atomic number is 1. So
hydrogen has 1 proton.

Mass number
• The sum of the number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus.
• Ex: Mass number of carbon is 12.
• No. of neutrons = mass no. - atomic no.
Isotopes
• atoms of an element with the same number of
protons, but different numbers of neutrons in
the nucleus.
• Isobar: atoms having equal atomic weights but
different atomic numbers. Example:

58
Fe, 5828Ni
26

• Isotone: atoms whose nuclei have the same

number of neutrons but different numbers of
protons. Example:

11
B, 126C
5
Rutherford’s nuclear atomic model
• According to this model
1.Atom contains a heavy and positively charged
part at its centre. This central part of the atom is
called nucleus.
2. The volume occupied by the nucleus is only a
minute fraction of the total volume of the atom,
i.e. the size of the nucleus is very small as
compared to that of the whole atom.
3. Atom is not all solid, but is extraordinarily hollow.
Most of the space around the nucleus is empty,
except for the presence of electrons which
themselves are extremely minute.
4. Electrons are revolving round the nucleus in
closed orbits with a fast speed and hence almost
all the space round the nucleus is occupied by the
revolving electrons. The electrons keep revolving
in orbits round the nucleus as the planets revolve
round the sun.
Drawbacks
1. A small charged particle moving around an oppositely charged
centre continuously loses its energy. If an electron does so, it
should continuously lose its energy and should set up spiral
motion ultimately failing into the nucleus.

2. It could not explain the line spectra of H and discontinuous

spectrum nature.
Bohr’s atomic model
• Bohr made the following postulates:

1.Fixed circular orbitals: Bohr assumed that

an electron is a particle which is revolving
around the nucleus in circular orbits situated at
fixed distance from the nucleus and with a
definite velocity.
2. Stationary energy levels: As long as an electron
remains in a particular orbit, it neither emits nor
absorbs energy. Thus in a particular orbit the energy of
a revolving electron remains constant. The orbits are
therefore called stationary energy levels.

3. Ground state and excited state: When the electron

is excited from a lower energy level to a higher energy
level, it absorbs energy. When it comes back from a
higher energy level to a lower energy level, it emits
energy. Absorption or emission of energy takes place in
the form of photons.

Energy level 1 is called the ground state of the electron.

The electrons present in energy levels 2, 3….. etc. is
said to be in the excited state.
4. Angular momentum: Bohr postulated that
an electron cannot move in all the orbits. It can
move only in which the angular momentum of
the electron (mvr) is integral whole number
multiple of h/2π.
h
mvr = n
2

Where, n = principle quantum number

h = Planck’s constant
r = radius of the orbit in which the
electron is moving.
Defects of Bohr’s Atomic Model
• Fine structure of spectral lines in the hydrogen
spectrum can not be explained by Bohr’s theory.
• No explanation for the spectra of multi-electron
system.
• Atomic model is not flat as suggested by Bohr,
but has a three-dimensional existence.
• No explanation for Zeeman and Stark effects.
• Bohr’s assumption that an electron revolving in
circular orbits situated at a fixed distance from
nucleus and with fixed velocity is against the
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
Spectrum
• A spectrum is an array of waves or particles
which is spread out according to the increasing
or decreasing of some property, such as
wavelength or frequency.
1. Emission spectra: Emission spectra can be obtained
from the substances which emit light on excitation.
Emission spectra are two types:
a. Continuous spectrum
b. Discontinuous spectrum
a. Continuous spectrum :
When you shine white light through a prism, you find out that it
contains a rainbow of colors. This is called dispersion, and it
happens because light of different wavelengths (colors) refracts
(bends) by different amounts inside the prism.
The rainbow could be described as a spectrum, and if the spectrum
goes all the way from red to violet, with no gaps, then it is a
continuous spectrum. A beam of perfectly white light, like you
would get under certain laboratory conditions, contains this kind of
spectrum. But most of the light even sunlight does not contain a
continuous spectrum.
b. Discontinuous spectrum: It may be band spectrum
or line spectrum.
Band spectrum: Band spectrum is the property of
molecules and generally given by the compounds or gases
like N2 and O2 molecules at low temperature and pressure.
It is also called molecular spectrum.
Line spectrum: When atom of an element, whether free or
in combination, absorbs energy, it gets excited. The excited atom
emits light radiations of a characteristic colour. When this
emitted radiation is allowed to pass through a prism, it is
resolved into individual components. The pattern of different
components of the radiation is called line spectrum. It is also
known as atomic spectrum.
2. Absorption spectra: If, in the arrangement to get a
continuous spectrum of the white light, a substance is placed
between the white light source (e.g. sun) and the prism, we get
an absorption spectrum. This spectrum appears in the form of
dark lines in a particular region of the continuous spectrum of
the white light.
Spectral Electrons jumped to Electrons jumped
Spectral region
series energy level from energy level

Lyman 1 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ……. UV region

Balmer 2 3, 4, 5, 6, ……. Visible region

Paschen 3 4, 5, 6, ……. Infrared region

Brackett 4 5, 6, ……. Infrared region

Pfund 5 6, ……. Infrared region

 Difference between orbit and orbital
Orbit Orbital
1. Definite circular path at a definite 1. A three dimensional region or space
distance from the nucleus in which around the nucleus within which the
the electron revolves around the probability of finding an electron with
nucleus. certain energy is maximum.

2. It represents the planar motion of 2. It represents the three dimensional

the electron. motion of the electron around the
nucleus.
3. The maximum number of electrons 3. An orbital can accommodate two
in an orbit is equal to 2n2. electrons. These two electrons must
have opposite spin.
4. Orbits are circular in shape. 4. Orbitals have different shapes. E.g.:
s orbital is spherical, p orbitals are
dumbbell shaped etc.
Quantum number

• Quantum number is used to identify the various

energy levels available with the atom in which
the electron of the atom can reside. Quantum
number serve as identification number which-
i. Specify the position of an electron in an atom
ii.Predict the direction of spin of the electron and
iii.Determine the energy and angular momentum
of the electron
• Four quantum numbers which are required to
completely specify the character of an electron
are:

1.Principal quantum number (n)

2.Azimuthal or subsidiary quantum number (ℓ)
3.Magnetic quantum number (m)
4.Spin quantum number (s)

• The first three (n, ℓ, m) specify the particular

orbital of interest and the fourth (s) specifies
how many electrons can occupy that orbital.
Principal Quantum Number (n)
• Specifies the energy of an electron and the size of the
orbital. All orbitals that have the same value of n are said
to be in the same shell. For a hydrogen atom with n=1,
the electron is in its ground state; if the electron is in the
n=2 orbital, it is in an excited state. The total number of
orbitals for a given n value is n2. n have non zero positive
integer values up to infinity i.e. n = 1, 2, 3, …∞

Value of n 1 2 3 4 ...
Designation of
K (1st shell) L (2nd shell) M (3rd shell) N (4th shell) ...
shell
Azimuthal Quantum Number (ℓ)

• Specifies the shape of an orbital with a particular

principal quantum number. The secondary
quantum number divides the shells into smaller
groups of orbitals called subshells.
ℓ = 0, 1, 2...... n-1.

• Usually, a letter code is used to identify ℓ to avoid

confusion with n.
 ℓ 0 1 2 3 ...

Letter s p d f ...

Spectral
Sharp Principal Diffuse Fundamental ...
terms

Shape

Spherical Dumb-bell Double dumb-bell Very complex

• The subshell with n=2 and ℓ=1 is the 2p subshell;
if n=3 and ℓ=0, it is the 3s subshell and so on.
The value of ℓ also has a slight effect on the
energy of the subshell; the energy of the subshell
increases with ℓ (s < p < d < f).

• Total number of electron in a given subshell is

equal to 2 (2ℓ + 1).
s-orbital
p-orbital
d-orbital
f-orbital
Magnetic Quantum Number (m)
• Specifies the orientation in space of an orbital of
a given energy (n) and shape (ℓ). This number
divides the subshell into individual orbitals
which hold the electrons; there are 2ℓ +1 orbitals
in each subshell. Thus the s subshell has only
one orbital, the p subshell has three orbitals, and
so on.
m = -ℓ, ..., 0, ..., +ℓ.
Spin Quantum Number (s)
• Specifies the orientation of the spin axis of an
electron. An electron can spin in only one of two
directions (sometimes called up and down).
s = +½ or -½.
Principal quantum Azimuthal quantum Magnetic quantum Spin quantum number
number (n) number (ℓ) number (m) (s)
1. n = 1, 2, 3,...... ∞ 1. ℓ goes from 0 to n-1 1. Values of m go from +ℓ to 1. has 2 values: +1/2 (spin
within an energy level. ℓ -ℓ, which gives 2ℓ + 1 up) and -1/2(spin down).
values = 0 (for s), 1 (for p), number of values.
2 (for d), 3 (for f) sublevels.

2. Measures the average 2. Indicates the shape of 2. Determines the number 2. Identifies the "spin" or
distance of the e- from the the orbital (set of probable of orbitals and their rotation of the e- about its
nucleus. locations of the e- ). orientation within a sub own axis.
shell.
3. Different values of n 3. Different values of ℓ 3. Specifies the e- orbital in 3. Shows that each orbital
mean different energy mean different sublevels. which the e- is located can contain only 2e-.
levels. In a sublevel all the e- have within a sublevel.
nearly the same energy.

4. Different values of n 4. Different sublevels 4. Different values of m 4. The direction of spin is

mean relatively large within the same level may mean little difference in either in one direction or
differences in the energies have moderately large energies of the e-. the other.
of the e-s. differences in energy.

5. The smallest average 5. Within any level, the 5. The number of possible 5. When 2e- have the same
distance and the lowest lowest energy sublevel is s, values of m within a set of quantum number,
energy occurs when n = 1. then p, then d, then f. sublevel identifies how then these e- are called an
many e- pairs that the e- pair.
sublevel can hold.
6. The number of e- possible 6. Total number of electron 6. The number of e- 6. e- within an e- pair have
in a level is 2n2. in a given subshell is equal possible in a orbital is 2. essentially the same
to 2 (2ℓ + 1). energy.
Table of allowed combinations of
quantum numbers
The quantum numbers
Number of Total
Number of
Sub shell electrons number of
orbitals in
notation needed to fill electrons in
the sub shell
sub shell sub shell
n ℓ m
1 0 0 1s 1 2 2
0 0 2s 1 2
2 8
1 1, 0, -1 2p 3 6
0 0 3s 1 2
3 1 1, 0, -1 3p 3 6 18
2 2, 1, 0, -1, -2 3d 5 10
0 0 4s 1 2
1 1, 0, -1 4p 3 6
4 32
2 2, 1, 0, -1, -2 4d 5 10
3 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2, -3 4f 7 14
Pauli’s exclusion principle
• Pauli’s exclusion principle states that ‘no two
electrons can have the same four quantum
numbers’.

• The first three quantum numbers may be similar,

but the fourth quantum number must be different.
We know that in one orbital a maximum of two
electrons can be found and the two electrons must
have opposing spins. That means one would spin up
(+1/2) and the other would spin down (-1/2).
Example
• Let us consider helium atom which has two electrons in 1s
orbital for which n = 1, ℓ = 0, m = 0. The four quantum
numbers for the two electrons in 1s orbitals are as follows:

Quantum numbers
Electron number
n ℓ m s

Ist electron 1 0 0 +1/2

2nd electron 1 0 0 -1/2

• The two electrons have different sets of four quantum

numbers which is in accordance with Pauli’s exclusion
principle.