Operating System Overview

Lecture #3

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 Kernel
• Portion of operating system that is in
main memory
• Contains most frequently used
functions
• Also called the nucleus

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 Evolution of an Operating
System
• Hardware upgrades plus new types of
hardware
• New services
• Fixes

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 Evolution of Operating
Systems
• Serial Processing
– No operating system
– Machines run from a console with display
lights, toggle switches, input device, and
printer
– Schedule time
– Setup included loading the compiler,
source program, saving compiled
program, and loading and linking
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 Evolution of Operating
Systems
• Simple Batch Systems
– Monitors
• Software that controls the sequence of events
• Batch jobs together
• Program branches back to monitor when
finished

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Job Control Language (JCL)
• Special type of programming language
• Provides instruction to the monitor
– What compiler to use
– What data to use

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 Hardware Features
• Memory protection
– Do not allow the memory area containing
the monitor to be altered
• Timer
– Prevents a job from monopolizing the
system

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 Hardware Features
• Privileged instructions
– Certain machine level instructions can
only be executed by the monitor
• Interrupts
– Early computer models did not have this
capability

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 Memory Protection
• User program executes in user mode
– Certain instructions may not be executed
• Monitor executes in system mode
– Kernel mode
– Privileged instructions are executed
– Protected areas of memory may be
accessed

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I/O Devices Slow

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 Uniprogramming
• Processor must wait for I/O instruction to
complete before preceding

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 Multiprogramming
• When one job needs to wait for I/O, the
processor can switch to the other job

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Multiprogramming

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Utilization Histograms

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Example

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 Time Sharing
• Using multiprogramming to handle
multiple interactive jobs
• Processor’s time is shared among
multiple users
• Multiple users simultaneously access
the system through terminals

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 Compatible Time-Sharing
System (CTSS)
• First time-sharing system developed at
MIT

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 Major Achievements
• Processes
• Memory Management
• Information protection and security
• Scheduling and resource management
• System structure

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 Processes
• A program in execution
• An instance of a program running on a
computer
• The entity that can be assigned to and
executed on a processor
• A unit of activity characterized by a
single sequential thread of execution, a
current state, and an associated set of
system resources
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 Difficulties with Designing
System Software
• Improper synchronization
– Ensure a process waiting for an I/O device
receives the signal
• Failed mutual exclusion
• Nondeterminate program operation
– Program should only depend on input to it,
not on the activities of other programs
• Deadlocks
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 Process
• Consists of three components
– An executable program
– Associated data needed by the program
– Execution context of the program
• All information the operating system needs to
manage the process

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Process

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 Memory Management
• Process isolation
• Automatic allocation and management
• Support of modular programming
• Protection and access control
• Long-term storage

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 Virtual Memory
• Allows programmers to address
memory from a logical point of view
• No hiatus between the execution of
successive processes while one
process was written out to secondary
store and the successor proceess was
read in

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Virtual Memory and File System
• Implements long-term store
• Information stored in named objects
called files

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 Paging
• Allows process to be comprised of a
number of fixed-size blocks, called
pages
• Virtual address is a page number and
an offset within the page
• Each page may be located any where
in main memory
• Real address or physical address in
main memory
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Virtual Memory

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Virtual Memory Addressing

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 Information Protection and
Security
• Availability
– Concerned with protecting the system
against interruption
• Confidentiality
– Assuring that users cannot read data for
which access is unauthorized

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 Information Protection and
Security
• Data integrity
– Protection of data from unauthorized
modification
• Authenticity
– Concerned with the proper verification of
the identity of users and the validity of
messages or data

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Scheduling and Resource
Management
• Fairness
– Give equal and fair access to resources
• Differential responsiveness
– Discriminate among different classes of
jobs
• Efficiency
– Maximize throughput, minimize
response time, and accommodate as
many uses as possible
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Key Elements of
Operating System

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 System Structure
• View the system as a series of levels
• Each level performs a related subset of
functions
• Each level relies on the next lower level
to perform more primitive functions
• This decomposes a problem into a
number of more manageable
subproblems

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 Process Hardware Levels
• Level 1
– Electronic circuits
– Objects are registers, memory cells, and
logic gates
– Operations are clearing a register or
reading a memory location
• Level 2
– Processor’s instruction set
– Operations such as add, subtract, load,
and store
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 Process Hardware Levels
• Level 3
– Adds the concept of a procedure or
subroutine, plus call/return operations
• Level 4
– Interrupts

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 Concepts with
Multiprogramming
• Level 5
– Process as a program in execution
– Suspend and resume processes
• Level 6
– Secondary storage devices
– Transfer of blocks of data
• Level 7
– Creates logical address space for
processes
– Organizes virtual address space into blocks
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 Deal with External Objects
• Level 8
– Communication of information and
messages between processes
• Level 9
– Supports long-term storage of named files
• Level 10
– Provides access to external devices using
standardized interfaces

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 Deal with External Objects
• Level 11
– Responsible for maintaining the association
between the external and internal identifiers
• Level 12
– Provides full-featured facility for the support
of processes
• Level 13
– Provides an interface to the operating
system for the user
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 Modern Operating Systems
• Microkernel architecture
– Assigns only a few essential functions to
the kernel
• Address spaces
• Interprocess communication (IPC)
• Basic scheduling

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 Modern Operating Systems
• Multithreading
– Process is divided into threads that can
run concurrently
• Thread
– Dispatchable unit of work
– executes sequentially and is interruptable
• Process is a collection of one or more threads

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 Modern Operating Systems
• Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)
– There are multiple processors
– These processors share same main
memory and I/O facilities
– All processors can perform the same
functions

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Multiprogramming and
Multiprocessing

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 Modern Operating Systems
• Distributed operating systems
– Provides the illusion of a single main
memory space and single secondary
memory space

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 Modern Operating Systems
• Object-oriented design
– Used for adding modular extensions to a
small kernel
– Enables programmers to customize an
operating system without disrupting
system integrity

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 Windows Architecture
• Modular structure for flexibility
• Executes on a variety of hardware
platforms
• Supports application written for other
operating system

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Operating System Organization
• Modified microkernel architecture
– Not a pure microkernel
– Many system functions outside of the
microkernel run in kernel mode
• Any module can be removed,
upgraded, or replaced without rewriting
the entire system

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 Kernel-Mode Components
• Executive
– Contains base operating system services
• Memory management
• Process and thread management
• Security
• I/O
• Interprocess communication
• Kernel
– Consists of the most used components
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 Kernel-Mode Components
• Hardware abstraction layer (HAL)
– Isolates the operating system from
platform-specific hardware differences
• Device drivers
– Translate user I/O function calls into
specific hardware device I/O requests
• Windowing and graphics systems
– Implements the graphical user interface
(GUI)
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 Windows Executive
• I/O manager
• Cache manager
• Object manager
• Plug and play manager
• Power manager
• Security reference monitor
• Virtual memory manager
• Process/thread manager
• Configuration manager
• Local procedure call (LPC) facility
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 User-Mode Processes
• Special system support processes
– Ex: logon process and the session
manager
• Service processes
• Environment subsystems
• User applications

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 Client/Server Model
• Simplifies the Executive
– Possible to construct a variety of APIs
• Improves reliability
– Each service runs on a separate process
with its own partition of memory
– Clients cannot not directly access hardware
• Provides a uniform means for
applications to communicate via LPC
• Provides base for distributed computing
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 Threads and SMP
• Operating system routines can run on any
available processor
• Different routines can execute
simultaneously on different processors
• Multiple threads of execution within a single
process may execute on different processors
simultaneously
• Server processes may use multiple threads
• Share data and resources between process

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 Windows Objects
• Encapsulation
– Object consists of one or more data items
and one or more procedures
• Object class or instance
– Create specified instances of an object
• Inheritance
– Support to some extent in the Executive
• Polymorphism
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 UNIX
• Hardware is surrounded by the
operating system software
• Operating system is called the system
kernel
• Comes with a number of user services
and interfaces
– Shell
– Components of the C compiler

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UNIX

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UNIX Kernel

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Modern UNIX Kernel

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 Modern UNIX Systems
• System V Release 4 (SVR4)
• Solaris 9
• 4.4BSD
• Linux

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