ECE111 – Analog Electronics

Sandeep Saini
Gaurav Chatterjee

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 Lecture – 02:
Current Flow in Semiconductors

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Drift Current

● When an electrical field E is established in a semiconductor

crystal, holes are accelerated in the direction of E, and free
electrons are accelerated in the direction opposite to that of
E.
● The holes acquire a velocity νp-drift given by
νp-drift = μpE (1)
● where μp is a constant called the hole mobility.
● μp must have the units of centimeters squared per volt-
second (cm2/V ·s).
● For intrinsic silicon μp = 480 cm2/V ·s.
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● The free electrons acquire a drift velocity νn-drift given by
νn-drift = −μnE (2)
● where the result is negative because the electrons move in the direction
opposite to E.
● Here μn is the electron mobility, which for intrinsic silicon is about 1350
cm2/V·s.
● Note that μn is about 2.5 times μp.

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Current Density
● Let the concentration of holes be p and that of free electrons n.
● We wish to calculate the current component due to the flow of holes.
● Consider a plane perpendicular to the x direction.
● In one second, the hole charge that crosses that plane will be (Aqpν p-drift) coulombs,
● where A is the cross-sectional area of the silicon bar and q is the magnitude of
electron charge.
● This then must be the hole component of the drift current flowing through the bar,
Ip = Aqpνp-drift (3)
● Substituting for νp-drift, we obtain
Ip = AqpμpE (4)
● We are usually interested in the current density J p, which is the current per unit
cross-sectional area,
Jp = (Ip/A) = qpμpE (5)

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Current density

● The current component due to the drift of free electrons can be found in a
similar manner.
In = −Aqnνn-drift (6)
Jn = In/A = qnμnE (7)
● The total drift current density is Jp + Jn.
J = Jp +Jn = q(pμp +nμn)E (8)
● This relationship can be written as
J = σE = E/ρ (9)
● where the conductivity σ is given by
σ = q(pμp +nμn) (10)
● and the resistivity ρ is given by
ρ ≡ 1/σ = 1/(q(pμp +nμn)) (11)
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Example

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Practice question

● A uniform bar of n-type silicon of 2-μm length has a voltage

of 1V applied across it. If ND = 1016/cm3 and μn = 1350 cm2/V
·s, find
● (a) the electron drift velocity,
● (b) the time it takes an electron to cross the 2-μm length,
● (c) the drift-current density, and
● (d) the drift current in the case that the silicon bar has a
cross-sectional area of 0.25 μm2.

● Ans. 6.75×106 cm/s; 30 ps; 1.08×104 A/cm2; 27 μA

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Diffusion Current

● Carrier diffusion occurs when the density of charge carriers

in a piece of semiconductor is not uniform.
● For instance, if the concentration of, say, holes, is made
higher in one part of a piece of silicon than in another, then
holes will diffuse from the region of high concentration to
the region of low concentration.
● Such a diffusion process is like that observed if one drops a
few ink drops in a water-filled tank.
● The diffusion of charge carriers gives rise to a net flow of
charge, or diffusion current.
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● Consider the bar of silicon (Fig a).
● We have arranged to inject holes into its left
side.
● This continuous hole injection gives rise to and
maintains a hole concentration profile such as
that shown in Fig. (b).
● This profile in turn causes holes to diffuse from
left to right along the silicon bar, resulting in a
hole current in the x direction.
● The magnitude of the current at any point is
proportional to the slope of the concentration
profile, or the concentration gradient, at that
point,
(12)
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 (12)

● where Jp is the hole-current density (A/cm2),

● q is the magnitude of electron charge,
● Dp is a constant called the diffusion constant or diffusivity of holes;
● and p(x) is the hole concentration at point x.

● Note that the gradient (dp/dx) is negative, resulting in a positive current in the x
direction, as should be expected.

● In the case of electron diffusion resulting from an electron concentration gradient,

then the electron-current density is,
(13)
● For holes and electrons diffusing in intrinsic silicon, typical values for the diffusion
constants are Dp = 12 cm2/s and Dn = 35 cm2/s
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Example

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Practice problem

● The linear electron-concentration profile shown

in Fig. has been established in a piece of silicon.
If n0 = 1017/cm3 and W = 1 μm, find the electron-
current density in microamperes per micron
squared (μA/μm2).
● If a diffusion current of 1 mA is required, what
must the cross-sectional area (in a direction
perpendicular to the page) be?
● Recall that Dn = 35 cm2/s

● Answer: 56 μA/μm2; 18 μm2

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Einstein Relationship

● A simple but powerful relationship ties the diffusion

constant with the mobility,
(14)
● where VT = kT/q.
● The parameter VT is known as the thermal voltage.
● At room temperature, T 300 K and VT = 25.9 mV.
● The relationship in Eq. (14) is known as the Einstein
relationship

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Example

● Use the Einstein relationship to find Dn and Dp for intrinsic

silicon using μn = 1350 cm2/V·s and μp = 480 cm2/V·s.

● Ans. 35 cm2/s; 12.4 cm2/s

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The PN junction

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Physical structure

● Figure below shows a simplified physical structure of the pn junction.

● It consists of a p-type semiconductor brought into close contact with an n-
type semiconductor material.
● In actual practice, the pn junction is formed within a single silicon crystal
by creating regions of different dopings (p and n regions).
● External wire connections are made to the p and n regions through metal
(aluminum) contacts.
● If the pn junction is used as a diode, these constitute the diode terminals
and are therefore labeled “anode” and “cathode” .

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Open circuit operations

● Figure shows a pn junction under open-circuit

conditions
● The “+” signs in the p-type material denote the
majority holes.
● The charge of these holes is neutralized by an equal
amount of bound negative charge associated with
the acceptor atoms.
● For simplicity, these bound charges are not shown
in the diagram.
● Also not shown are the minority electrons
generated in the p-type material by thermal
ionization.
● And the reverse for the n-type material.
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The Diffusion Current ID

● Because the concentration of holes is high in the p region

and low in the n region, holes diffuse across the junction
from the p side to the n side.
● Similarly, electrons diffuse across the junction from the n
side to the p side.
● These two current components add together to form the
diffusion current ID, whose direction is from the p side to the
n side,

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The Depletion Region

● The holes that diffuse across the junction into the n region quickly
recombine with some of the majority electrons present there and thus
disappear from the scene.
● This recombination process results also in the disappearance of some
free electrons from the n-type material.
● Thus some of the bound positive charge will no longer be neutralized by
free electrons, and this charge is said to have been uncovered.
● Since recombination takes place close to the junction, there will be a
region close to the junction that is depleted of free electrons and
contains uncovered bound positive charge.

● And similarly uncovered negative charge on the other side.

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The Depletion Region

● From the above it follows that a carrier-depletion region will exist on

both sides of the junction, with the n side of this region positively
charged and the p side negatively charged.
● This carrier-depletion region—or, simply, depletion region—is also
called the space-charge region.
● Hence a potential difference results across the depletion region, with the
n side at a positive voltage relative to the p side, as shown in Fig. (b).
● Thus the resulting electric field opposes the diffusion of holes into the n
region and electrons into the p region.
● In fact, the voltage drop across the depletion region acts as a barrier.
● It has to be overcome for holes to diffuse into the n region and electrons
to diffuse into the p region.
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The Drift Current IS and Equilibrium

● In addition to the current component ID due to majority-carrier diffusion, a component

due to minority-carrier drift exists across the junction.
● Specifically, some of the thermally generated holes in the n material move toward the
junction and reach the edge of the depletion region.
● Similarly, some of the minority thermally generated electrons in the p material move to
the edge of the depletion region
● These two current components—electrons moved by drift from p to n and holes moved
by drift from n to p—add together to form the drift current I S, whose direction is from
the n side to the p side of the junction,
● Since the current IS is carried by thermally generated minority carriers, its value is
strongly dependent on temperature;
● Under open-circuit conditions no external current exists; thus the two opposite currents
across the junction must be equal in magnitude:
ID = IS (15)

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The Junction Built-in Voltage

● With no external voltage applied, the barrier voltage V0

across the pn junction can be shown to be given by
(16)

● Where NA and ND are the doping concentrations of the p side

and n side of the junction, respectively.
● V0 is known as the junction built-in voltage.
● Typically, for silicon at room temperature, V0 is in the range
of 0.6 V to 0.9 V.

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Can pn junction generate energy?

● When the pn junction terminals are left open-circuited, the

voltage measured between them will be zero.
● The voltage V0 across the depletion region does not appear
between the junction terminals.
● This is because of the contact voltages existing at the metal–
semiconductor junctions at the terminals, which counter and
exactly balance the barrier voltage.
● If this were not the case, we would have been able to draw
energy from the isolated pn junction

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 Width of and Charge Stored in the
Depletion Region
● In Fig. (a) we show a junction in which NA > ND,
● This is borne out by the carrier concentration on both
sides of the junction, as shown in Fig. (b).
● Note that we have denoted the minority-carrier
concentrations in both sides by np0 and pn0,
● Observe that the depletion region extends in both the p
and n materials and that equal amounts of charge exist on
both sides (Q+ and Q− in Fig. (c).
● However, since usually unequal dopings NA and ND are
used, as in the case illustrated in Fig. 3.10, the width of
the depletion layer will not be the same on the two sides.
● Rather, to uncover the same amount of charge, the
depletion layer will extend deeper into the more lightly
doped material.
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● If we denote the width of the depletion region in the p side by x p and in the
n side by xn, we can express the magnitude of the charge on the n side of
the junction as
|Q+| = qAxnND (17)
● and that on the p side of the junction as
|Q−| = qAxpNA (18)
● where A is the cross-sectional area of the junction in the plane
perpendicular to the page.
● The charge equality condition can now be written as
qAxnND = qAxpNA
● which can be rearranged to yield
(19)
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● In actual practice, it is usual for one side of the junction to be
much more heavily doped than the other, with the result that
the depletion region exists almost entirely on one side.
● The width W of the depletion layer can be shown to be given
by
● (20)
● where is the electrical permittivity of silicon = 11.70 =
11.7×8.85×10−14 F/cm = 1.04 × 10−12 F/cm.
● Typically, W is in the range 0.1 μm to 1 μm.

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● We can represent xn and xp in terms of W
●
● The charge stored on either side of the depletion region can
be expressed in terms of W to obtain QJ = Q+ = Q−

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Example

● Consider a pn junction in equilibrium at room temperature (T =

300 K) for which the doping concentrations are N A = 1018/cm3 and
ND = 1016/cm3 and the cross-sectional area A = 10−4 cm2.
● Calculate pp, np0, nn, pn0, V0, W, xn, xp, and QJ. Use ni = 1.5×1010/cm3.

● Solution:

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