CSE-820: Advanced Computer

Networks
Mobile Radio Propagation: Large Scale Path Loss

Hassaan Khaliq Qureshi

School of Electrical Engineering & Computer Science
National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST)
Pakistan
The Components

 Successful transmission of data relies on two principle factors

 (a) Quality of signal being transmitted

 (b) Characteristics of transmission medium

The quality of the signal is dependent on

how many components its made up from.
The more components that make up the
wave the more robust it will be – it won’t
be difficult to interpret it will be more
robust to error etc.

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Layers of a Typical Communication Systems
 Contemporary communication systems
comprise different protocol layers
 A typical protocol stack contains the
following layers Application Layer
Transport Layer

Network Layer
MAC Sublayer
Data Link Layer
Physical Layer

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Layers of a Typical Communication Systems
 Physical layer is closest to the transmission
medium and is responsible for transmitting
and receiving bits on/from the physical
medium

 Transmission takes place in the form of

electromagnetic waves
MAC Sublayer
Data Link Layer
 These waves arePhysical
modulatedby the
Layer
transmitter and demodulated at the receiver
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 How is Wireless Different? Physical Layer
Information Information
source sink
Transmitter Receiver
(Spect. Channel (Channel
Reg./Size/power Estimation/Err
constraints) or Correction)

 Wireless is different because of its channel which is:

 Noisy: due to attenuation, interference and the signal reaching the
receiver from multiple propagation paths, a phenomenon called
multipath fading
 Time varying: orders of magnitude difference in channel characteristics
due to mobility
 Shared: bandwidth sharing with and interference from other
transmitters
 Bandwidth limited: Bandwidth of a radio propagation path is much less
than that of a guided wired medium
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Wireless Communications: Design Factors
 Bandwidth
 higher bandwidth gives higher data rate

 Transmission impairments
 eg. Attenuation

 Impairments, such as attenuation, limit the distance

 Interference: Interference from competing signals in overlapping

frequency bands can distort or wipe out a signal. Interference is
of particular concern for unguided wireless medium.

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Wireless Transmission Frequencies
 1GHz to 40GHz [limit is different in different books]
 microwave
 highly directional beams are possible
 point to point
 satellite
 30MHz to 1GHz
 Omni-directional applications
 broadcast radio
 3 x 1011 to 2 x 1014
 Infrared (useful to local point-to-point and multipoint
applications within confined areas, such as a single room.)

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Broadcast Radio
 Radio is 3kHz to 300GHz

 Term broadcast radio is used, below 30MHz, for:

 FM radio

 UHF and VHF television (ranged 170-230 MHZ)

 is omnidirectional

 However, still needs line of sight above 300Mhz for majority of

applications
 suffers from multipath interference
 reflections from land, water, other objects

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Decibels
 Standard Unit describing transmission gain (loss ) and relative
power levels.

Gain= N (db) = 10log (P2/P1)

 Decibels above or below 1W: cater in Watts

 Decibels above or below 1mW: cater in milli Watts

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 Example
If a transmitter produces 50 W of power, express
the transmit power in units of dBm and dBW.

dB and dbW are the same thing: the

normalization factor is 1 Watt

In dBm, the normalization factor is 1 milli Watts

Solution
PT(dB) = 10 log(50W/1W) = 10xlog(50) – 10
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Wireless Propagation Modes

 A signal radiated from an antenna travels along one of three

routes:
 Ground wave

 Sky wave

 Line of sight (LOS)

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Wireless Propagation: Ground Wave
 Ground wave propagation more or less follows the contour of the
earth and can propagate considerable distances, well over the
visual horizon.

 Several factors account for the tendency of electromagnetic wave

in this frequency band to follow the earth's curvature.

 One factor is that the electromagnetic wave induces a current in

the earth's surface, the result of which is to slow the wavefront
near the earth, causing the wavefront to tilt downward and hence
follow the earth's curvature.

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Wireless Propagation: Ground Wave
 Another factor is diffraction, which is a phenomenon having to
do with the behavior of electromagnetic waves in the presence of
obstacles.

 Electromagnetic waves in this frequency range are scattered by

the atmosphere in such a way that they do not penetrate the upper
atmosphere. The best-known example of ground wave
communication is AM radio.

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Wireless Propagation: Ground Wave

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Wireless Propagation: Sky Wave

 Sky wave propagation is used for amateur radio, and international

broadcasts such as BBC and Voice of America.

 With sky wave propagation, a signal from an earth-based antenna

is reflected from the ionized layer of the upper atmosphere
(ionosphere) back down to earth.

 Although it appears the wave is reflected from the ionosphere as

if the ionosphere were a hard reflecting surface, the effect is in
fact caused by refraction.

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Wireless Propagation: Sky Wave

 A sky wave signal can travel through a number of hops, bouncing

back and forth between the ionosphere and the earth's surface.

 With this propagation mode, a signal can be picked up thousands

of kilometers from the transmitter.

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Wireless Propagation: Sky Wave

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Wireless Propagation: Line of Sight
 Above 30 MHz, neither ground wave nor sky wave propagation
modes operate, and communication must be by line of sight.

 For satellite communication, a signal above 30 MHz is not

reflected by the ionosphere and therefore a signal can be
transmitted between an earth station and a satellite overhead that
is not beyond the horizon.

 In addition, it can also be used for LOS communication between

two transceivers on the ground.

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Wireless Propagation: Line of Sight

 For ground-based communication, the transmitting and receiving

antennas must be within an effective line of sight of each other.

 The term effective is used because microwaves are bent or

refracted by the atmosphere.

 The amount and even the direction of the bend depends on

conditions, but generally microwaves are bent with the curvature
of the earth and will therefore propagate farther than the optical
line of sight.

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Effective LOS

 Line of sight (LoS) is a type of propagation

that can transmit and receive data only
where transmit and receive stations are in
view of each other without any sort of an
obstacle.

 However, for Wireless Networks a modified

line-of-sight transmission is used, which is
made possible through a combination of
effects like diffraction, multipath reflection,
and rapid handoff. Therefore, receiver 20
Wireless Propagation: Line of Sight

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Wireless Propagation: Line of Sight

 Free space loss

 loss of signal with distance

 Atmospheric Absorption
 from water vapour and oxygen absorption

 Multipath
 multiple interfering signals from reflections

 Refraction
 Bending of signal away from receiver

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Wireless Propagation: Free Space Loss

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Wireless Propagation: Multipath Interference

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Terrestrial Microwave
 Used for long haul telecommunications and short point-to-point
links

 requires fewer repeaters but line of sight

 use a parabolic dish to focus a narrow beam onto a receiver

antenna [1-40 GHz frequencies]

 main source of loss is attenuation

 distance, rainfall also interference

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Satellite Microwave
 satellite is relay station
 receives on one frequency, amplifies or repeats signal
and transmits on another frequency
 eg. uplink 5.925-6.425 GHz & downlink 3.7-4.2 GHz
 typically requires geo-stationary orbit
 height of 35,784 km
 spaced at least 3-4° apart
 typical uses
 television
 long distance telephone
 private business networks
 global positioning

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Satellite Point to Point Link

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Satellite Broadcast Link

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 Line of Sight Transmission:
Noise and Spectral Efficiency

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Noise

 The received signal consists of transmitted signal modified by the

various distortions imposed by the transmission system.

 The major part in various distortions include the unwanted signal

that is inserted somewhere between transmission and reception.

 This unwanted signal is referred to as noise.

- Noise in a signal with bandwidth B is given by N=NoB

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Noise

 Noise may be divided into four categories:

o Thermal Noise (No): Due to thermal agitation of electrons. It is

present in all electronic devices and transmission media and is a
function of temperature.

No = K . T (W/Hz)

Where K is Boltzmann constant (1.38 * 10-23)J/k, and T is the

temperature in Kelvins.

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Spectral Efficiency
 It can be easily observed that the data rate increases linearly
with the channel bandwidth [in case you have lots of it]

 Therefore, efficiency of a wireless communication system is

measured in terms of data rate per Hertz of frequency

 This measure is called spectral efficiency (units: bits/sec/Hz) of a

wireless system

 Example: A transmission technique using one kilohertz of

bandwidth to transmit 1,000 bits per second has a spectral
efficiency of 1 (bit/s)/Hz.

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Spectral Efficiency

 In digital communications, a parameter relation to SNR is more

convenient for determining digital data rates and error rates.

 The standard known as Eb/No is a standard quality measure for

digital system performance.

Eb = S.Tb

where S is the signal power and T is the time required to send

one bit. Recall, No is equal to KT.

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Spectral Efficiency

 The data rate R is equal to 1/Tb , that is fairly realistic since time
required to send increases, then data rate decreases gradually.

 Inserting, Eb/No = S/R/No= S/KTR

 In Db, It becomes
( Eb/No )db= S (dB) – 10Log (K) - 10Log (T) - 10Log (R)

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Exercise
 Suppose a signal encoding technique requires Eb/No = 8.4db for a
bit error rate of 10-4 (one bit error out of every 10,000). If the
effective noise temperature is 290 Kelvins and the data rate is 2.4
Kbps , what received signal level is required to overcome thermal
noise.

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Spectral Efficiency Vs Eb/No : The Relation

Eb/No = S/RNo

 And since No is the noise power density in watts per hertz, so

noise in a signal with B.W B is

N = NoB

Eb/No = S.B/RN = S/N * B/R

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Spectral Efficiency Vs Eb/No : The Relation

 According to Shannon's channel capacity theorem

 C= B Log2 (1+S/N), where C is the capacity of the channel in bits

per second and B is the bandwidth of the channel in hertz.
Rewriting the equation, we get

S/N = 2C/B-1, and by substituting it in

equation on the previous slide, we get

Eb/No = B/R (2C/B-1)

Where R/B is the spectral efficiency relating to Eb/No.
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Spectral Efficiency Vs Eb/No : Example
 Suppose we want to find the minimum Eb/No required
to achieve a spectral efficiency of 6 bps/Hz.

 Then Eb/No = (1/6)(26-1)=10.5=10.21 dB

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