IGCSE Radioactivity

Radioactivity
1
2 1. Introduction – unstable nuclei
2. Types of radioactive decay & decay equations
3
3. Measuring radioactivity – half-life
4 4. Radiometric dating
5. Background radiation
5 6. Experimental process & data for Ba-137m half-life
6 7. Harmful effects of radiation
8. Uses of radioactive isotopes
7 9. Ionisation smoke detector
8
Click on the arrow to go to that section
9 … or else hit enter/key-board arrow to proceed to the next slide
 Radioactivity
Introduction

Electrons and protons are bound together by electrostatic forces

… but within the nucleus, these same forces would cause the protons to push apart

Protons within the nucleus are bound together by a stronger “nuclear force”, which is attractive
between all nucleons (until they are almost ‘touching’)

- Protons and neutrons - 137x as strong as the electrostatic force

- max. range is 2 fm

… neutrons add to the nuclear force and help to ‘shield’ the protons from each
other
 Radioactivity
Introduction

Hydrogen needs no neutrons, its single proton feels only an attractive force with its electron

The neutron-to-proton shielding ratio starts off at 1:1, with Helium, … but soon increases as the
electrostatic repulsion between more and more protons increases, to a max. of 1.60

Lithium Beryllium Scandium Manganese Arsenic Antimony Gold Lead Plutonium

Element

Neutrons 4 5 24 30 42 70 118 126 150

N:Z 1.33 1.25 1.14 1.20 1.27 1.37 1.49 1.54 1.60
(neutron:proton)
 Radioactivity
This is a graph of neutron
The ‘Karlsruhe’ Table of Nuclides number vs. proton number

There is a central black region of nuclide stability

Isotopes above this region have too many neutrons

… a more stable nucleus can be achieved if
a neutron turns into a proton and ejects
an electron at the same time – “βeta decay”
or: “βeta minus decay”

Isotopes below this region have too many protons

… a more stable nucleus can be achieved if
a proton turns into a neutron and ejects
a positron at the same time – “βeta plus decay”
or: “positron emission”

Isotopes are different versions of the same

element, with different numbers of neutrons
 Radioactivity

Introduction Technetium Promethium

As early on in the periodic table as and , these elements have no stable isotope

The heaviest stable isotope is … Lead

Isotopes heavier than are so unstable as not to exist naturally on Earth

Uranium

Radioactivity … is a property exhibited by unstable nuclei, trying to become stable nuclei

Radioactive decay … is the process by which an unstable nucleus loses energy/mass by emitting
radiation to become a more stable nucleus
 Radioactivity
There are five main types of radiation / radioactive decay

Knowledge of
these last two
is not required
+ at this level
 Radioactivity
The neutrino and its antiparticle are chargeless, almost massless
Examples of radioactive decay particles that are an inherent part of the beta decay processes
 Radioactivity
αlpha vs. βeta vs. γamma

(Positron emission -particles bend in electric

tomography) & magnetic fields

‘Ionising’ – possessing enough energy (>10 eV) to ionise molecules or -particles bend in the
break chemical bonds, thereby causing chemical opposite direction and
reactions by a much larger angle
-19
… the electronvolt is a unit of energy = 1.602  10 joules
 Radioactivity
The stable isotopes have a This is a graph of proton
neutron:proton ratio that lie number vs. neutron number
in the central black positions

The further away from this

central ‘backbone’, the more
unstable the nucleus is

Isotopes below the line have

too many neutrons – a
neutron turns into a proton
via β- decay (electron
emission)

Isotopes above the line have

too few neutrons – a proton
turns into a neutron via β+
decay (positron emission)
 Radioactivity
β- decay from below the line This is a graph of proton
moves the isotope one step number vs. neutron number
diagonally , up-left, to the
next element up the table

β+ decay from above the line

moves the isotope one step
diagonally , down-right, to
the next element down the
table

α decay by heavy nuclei

(only) moves the isotope two
steps diagonally , down-
left, two elements down the
table (- a helium nucleus has
been ejected)
 Radioactivity
Radioactive Decay Equations relate decay products – “daughters” – to their “parents”, primarily in
terms of atomic mass numbers and atomic numbers … total nucleons and total charge must be
conserved, also total momentum and total mass/energy - this is the half-life (see later slide)
238 234 4
92 U 4 .468 𝑏𝑛 𝑦 90 Th + 2 He along this line l.h.s. = r.h.s.
4198 𝑘𝑒𝑉
along this line l.h.s. = r.h.s.  →
- this is conservation of
- this is conservation of charge nucleons
234 234 m 0
The ‘m’ indicates a metastable* 90 Th 24.1 𝑑 91 Pa + −1e 5 4 𝑘𝑒𝑉 +𝜈 𝑒 …𝑄 𝑇𝑜𝑡 =274 𝑘𝑒𝑉 - this is the
version of the isotope that has →
internal energy higher than its
anti-neutrino
234 m 234 0
least energy ‘ground’ state. 91 Pa 1.17 𝑚 92 U+ −1 e 821𝑘𝑒𝑉 +𝜈 𝑒 … 𝑄 𝑇𝑜𝑡 =2269 𝑘𝑒𝑉
They usually quickly gamma →
decay to their ground states - total decay
234 230 4 energy released
* - also called a nuclear isomer
92 U 247 𝑘𝑦 90 Th + 2 He 4775 𝑘𝑒𝑉
→
Energy values are for the
230most 226 4 In most cases, gamma rays
common occurrence 90 Th 75.4 𝑘𝑦 88 Ra + 2 He 4687 𝑘𝑒𝑉 are also emitted, with a
→
wide range of energies
Alpha particles (He nucleus)
226 222 4
88 Ra
typically have higher energies than
1602 𝑦 86 Rn + 2 He 4784 𝑘𝑒𝑉
→
beta particles (electron/positron)
 Radioactivity
Radioactive Decay Equations – cont’d
14 14 0
Carbon dating 6 C 5730 𝑦 7 N+ e
− 1 49 𝑘𝑒𝑉 +𝜈 𝑒 … 𝑄 𝑇𝑜𝑡 =156 𝑘𝑒𝑉
→
- - - - - - - - - - - - see later slides - - - - - - - - - - -

40
K 1.248 𝑏𝑛 𝑦 40
Ca +
0
e 560𝑘𝑒𝑉 +𝜈 𝑒 … 𝑄 𝑇𝑜𝑡 =1311 𝑘𝑒𝑉
19 20 −1
89.3 %
→
Potassium
-Argon dating 40
K +
0
e 1.248 𝑏𝑛 𝑦 40
Ar +𝛾 1461 𝑘𝑒𝑉 … 𝑄𝑇𝑜𝑡 =1504 𝑘𝑒𝑉
19 −1 18
10.7 % - this is a
→
gamma ray
-

18 18 0
PET scans 9 F 109.8 𝑚 8 O+ e
+1 250 𝑘𝑒𝑉 +𝜈 𝑒 …𝑄 𝑇𝑜𝑡 =1656 𝑘𝑒𝑉 - this is the
→
neutrino
Gamma 60 60 0
knife 27 Co 1925 𝑑 28 Ni + −1 e 96 𝑘𝑒𝑉 +𝜈𝑒 +𝛾 1173 𝑘𝑒𝑉 +𝛾 1 332 𝑘𝑒𝑉 … 𝑄 𝑇𝑜𝑡 =2823 𝑘𝑒𝑉
→
surgery
241 237 4 In most cases, gamma rays
Ionisation smoke detector 95 Am 432.6 𝑦 93 Np + 2 He 5486 𝑘𝑒𝑉are also emitted, with a
→
wide range of energies
 Radioactivity
Naturally
occurring
decay series

U-238 series

(not in the syllabus

at this level)
 Radioactivity
Naturally
occurring
decay series

Np-237 series

(not in the syllabus

at this level)
 Radioactivity
Naturally
occurring
decay series

Ac-227 series
(U-235)

(not in the syllabus

at this level)
 Radioactivity
Naturally
occurring
decay series

Th-232 series

(not in the syllabus

at this level)
 Radioactivity
- To detect neutrons, BF3 gas is used
Radioactive Decay - is a spontaneous random process or boron coated on the inner wall,
… one cannot say when it will occur neutron capture produces electrons
… only that there is a %-age chance of decay within a certain period
Radioactive decay/activity is measured using a Geiger-Müller tube
- radiation enters the tube and a single ionisation event produces an avalanche of electrons
and +ve ions, it is this surge of current that the detector counts. There is a ‘dead-time’ from the 1
/10th atm.
first event of 50 to 100 μs (due to the larger +ve ions taking longer to reach the outer cathode)
during which the detector is insensitive, followed
by a similar period until full ‘recovery’, and so a … 10% Br or Cl is used
maximum count rate is ~1,000 Hz. A detector to quench the
electron avalanche
efficiency factor for each type of radiation gives
the actual disintegration count

The SI unit of decay is the Becquerel (“Bq”)

1 Bq = 1 particle emitted per second
An alternative unit is the Curie (“Ci”)
1 Ci = 3.7×1010 Bq
 Radioactivity
- there are 60×60×24×365.25 = 31,557,600 seconds in a year !
Radioactive Decay

Ernest Rutherford observed (1900) that the rate of radioactive decay is proportional to the amount
of substance present
i.e. - the ‘decay
… which with re-arrangement, integration constant’
and exponentiation, becomes:-

- this is time in
seconds …
A convenient measure of the rate of decay is the ‘half-life’, t½

- the time taken for half the amount of the substance to decay into another
isotope/element

… or the time taken for the rate of that decay to fall to half of its original level

e.g. After three half-lives, activity will be one-eighth of the original level … this is ( 1/2)3

After ten half-lives, activity is 1/1,024 (~0.1%) of the original level … this is
 Radioactivity
Half-Life & Radiometric Dating - 14Carbon-dating

Life-forms take on carbon, incl. , which occurs once per

1.33 trillion atoms of carbon, with a half-life of 5,730 yrs
The decay rate of in natural carbon in plant life is known to
be 0.255 Ci per gram
By measuring the decay rate of in dead life-forms, and
taking natural logs of the decay ratio, the age of the
specimen is given by
Cosmic rays turn N-14 into C-14
- λ for is 3.833×10-12 s-1 which enters the carbon cycle

e.g. You discover a wooden artifact, take a 1 gram sample, and find its radioactivity level to be 0.180 Ci
An alternative way is 0.5n = N/No,
where ‘n’ is the number of half-lives
 n = ln(N/No)  ln(0.5)
The ‘trace’ occurrence and ‘short’ half-life of limits its reliable dating to ~55,000 yrs
 Radioactivity
Half-Life & Radiometric Dating - Potassium/Argon-dating

Some rocks contain potassium, incl. , which has 0.0117% abundance and t½ = 1.248×109 yrs

decays to in 89.3% of decay events, and to in 10.7% of decay events

(by β- emission [ p → n + e ]) (by electron capture [ p + e → n ])

By measuring the amount of and present when a rock sample is melted in a vacuum
… taking logs, the age is given by

- λ for is 1.760×10-17 s-1

provides reliable dating for specimens of age > ~100,000 yrs because of its very long half-life
 Radioactivity
Half-Life & Radiometric Dating - Uranium/Lead-dating

Some rocks contain Uranium-238, which has t½ = 4.468×109 yrs

decays (in a total of 14 steps) into

By measuring the amount of and present when a rock sample is melted in a vacuum
… taking logs, the age is given by
- λ for the whole chain is ~4.916×10-18 s-1
Calculations like this are not required
e.g. You analyse a rock sample to find that it contains 0.841,638 g of U-238 and 0.301,642 g of Pb-206
What is the rock’s age if all of the lead came only from the decay of uranium, and the atomic weights
are
U-238 = 238.051 and Pb-206 = 205.974 ?
(1 Pb
We atomtocomes
have from to
convert 1 Umoles:
atom) Moles of U-238 = 0.841638238.051 = 3.53554 mM … using the alternative
method of calculation
Moles of Pb-206 = 0.301642205.974 = 1.46447 mM
9
 Radioactivity

Half-Life & Radiometric Dating - Background radiation

All measurements of specimen radioactivity must

be adjusted for background radiation count • All known radiation sources should be
(Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material) removed from the site of the experiment
• A 60 second background count should
Rn is continuously produced from U-238 (via Th be enough to give 4 s.f. precision
& Ra) present in granite, and it alpha-decays into
Po in 3.8 mins ,
producing two more alpha-decays with half-
lives of minutes
Radiation within the body is mostly from C-14
& K-40, with activities of 3,080 Bq & 4,340 Bq
Cosmic rays are high energy particles, whose
origin is beyond the Solar System
- consisting of 89% protons, 10% electrons,
1% neutrons & ‘traces’ of heavier elements
 Radioactivity
A radioactivity experiment - personal protective equipment

Adjust the voltage applied across the tube as necessary

Carry out a background radiation count (see prev. slide) Geiger-Muller
Introduce the radiation source, wearing suitable PPE, and take a 60 s tube & electronics
count at a set distance from the source. The count-period can be extended or (quickly)
repeated to obtain a good average result Drop-off
&
For investigations into half life, repeat this procedure after suitable time periods. Alternative HVT
investigations can be into the activity drop-off vs. distance, and the half-value thickness, but apparatus
the repeat measurements should be taken in quick-cycled succession
For half-life investigation - graph the adjusted count rate against time from time-zero or the
logarithm of the adjusted count fraction against time from time-zero
The first graph will exhibit an exponential decay curve, whereas the second will be a downward
straight line with a gradient equal to the decay constant
 Radioactivity
A radioactivity experiment – contd. … logging the cumulative G-M count for Ba-137m, every 15 s for 5 mins
Time (s) 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225 240 255 270 285 300
Raw count 0 2218 4308 6269 8120 9848 11466 12957 14376 15684 16915 18095 19197 20240 21215 22105 22974 23791 24544 25252 25923
Incr. activity 0 2132 2004 1875 1765 1642 1532 1405 1333 1222 1145 1094 1016 957 889 804 783 731 667 622 585
- Incremental activity has been adjusted for the background count of 344 counts per minute (86 counts per 15 s)

Activity vs. Time (s) The decay constant, , is ln(activity ratio) vs. Time (s)
2200
0.00455 s-1 0
Line of best fit Line of
f(x) = − 0.00455297713863782 x + 0.0402299056166953 best fit
f(x) = 2219.51879176116 exp( − 0.00455297713863781 x ) R² = 0.999215716552936
2000 R² = 0.999215716552936
The half-life is given by: -0.2
1800
-0.4
1600
1400 -0.6

1200 -0.8
1000 - which agrees well with -1
800 the accepted 153 s -1.2
600
400 -1.4
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

2
- The ‘R ’ is a statistical measure that
… try dropping lines from the 2000 & 1000 activity levels – the time gap is ~150 s
tells us that 99.9% of the variance in
… try again using another activity ‘half-pair’, the time gap is the same y is explained by the variance in x
 Radioactivity
Harmful Effects of Radiation
- depending on radiation energy
Range in air Range in flesh … stopped by

alpha up to 5 cm up to 0.1 mm dead skin layer / paper

beta up to 8.8 m 1mm – 11 mm 5 mm Al or 1mm Pb

gamma up to 1.6 km can pass straight through 7.5 cm lead

half-value thickness is ~12 cm half-value thickness is ~1 cm

Neutrons can travel up to gamma range in air, but lose energy in elastic collisions, especially in materials rich in
light-weight nuclides such as hydrogen … but absorption by H-1 to produce H-2 leads to the emission of a
2.2 MeV -ray. Half-value thicknesses are: 4.2 cm for polythene 6.0 – 8.5 cm for concrete,
4.9 cm for steel depending
(‘Fast’ is >100 keV, ‘slow’ is < 10 keV)
on density
5.4 cm for water 6.8 cm for lead
 Radioactivity
Harmful Effects of Radiation

- & -particles are directly ionising, via their electrostatic effects

- & X-rays are indirectly ionising, via their energies causing ejection of -particles
Neutrons are indirectly ionising, via their energies causing ejection of protons, and their eventual absorption producing -rays

Alpha particles and fission products are 20x as harmful as beta, gamma and X-radiation, able to cause a
double break in the DNA chain, which leads to cell death. Protons are 2x as harmful, and neutrons from 2x to
20x, depending on energy. High energy (>250 keV) beta particles produce X-rays upon absorption
Different tissue types require a different cumulative ‘hit-count’ before they become inactive
 Radioactivity
Harmful Effects of Radiation

Radioactive dose to the body is measured in grays (“Gy”), which is one Joule per kg of tissue

, …D
- this is the Absorbed Dose, which is then weighted for the type of radiation to provide the
Equivalent Dose, H, measured in sieverts (“Sv”), also in J.kg-1

• Average background radiation is 3.5 mSv p.a.

• 1 chest X-ray is 0.1 mSv
• 1 full body CT scan is 10-30 mSv

• There is a ~5.5% chance of developing cancer for each sievert of exposure

• Exposure to 5 Sv over a few hrs leads to a 50% chance of death within 30 days
… nausea and vomiting occur within hours, followed by fatigue and tissue decay

Workers at risk wear radiation badges, e.g. airline pilots and crew,
staff at nuclear reactor plants, some hospital staff
 Radioactivity
Harmful Effects of Radiation – safety precautions when working with radioactive sources
e.g. ‘Perspex’ & ‘Lucite’
Minimise time spent in the proximity of radioactive sources
Keep your distance … radiation intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source
Use mirrors, periscopes, lead glass or acrylic shielding to view procedures
Use remote handling devices (forceps/tongs, automated if necessary)
Wear suitable PPE – lab coat, gloves, safety glasses, face shields, no open shoes (respiratory
protection is only to be used with caution)
Introduce the radiation source at the latest possible moment in the procedure
Assess the potential for gaseous or volatile sources, use a fume hood/cupboard where necessary
Do not rub eyes or touch mouth and nose
No eating/drinking or food/drink in areas where radioactive sources are present
Wear dosimeter(s) and carry out ‘wipe tests’ of surfaces
Store/shield radioactive sources within acrylic blocks of suitable shape and thickness, fitted snugly inside an
outer casing of lead - this absorbs beta particles with
- absorbs gamma minimal X-ray production
& X-rays
 Radioactivity
Uses of Radio-isotopes - you must know only about the existence of such technologies
PET = positron emission tomography
Medical uses SPECT = single photon emission computed tomography
γ rays associated with β- decay of Cs-137 are used to sterilise surgical equipment
γ rays associated with β- decay of Co-60 are used to kill cancers and tumours, & to sterilise equipment
γ rays associated with β+ decay are used as ‘tracers’ in PET scans to investigate fluid flow and to pinpoint
diseased tissues
γ rays associated with Tc-99m de-excitation from the β- decay of Mo-99 are used as ‘tracers’ in SPECT scans
Smoke detectors – α2+ particles from Am-141 create a current flow that smoke particles disrupt
Packaging for medical, cosmetic and food items, and in food processing
γ rays associated with β- decay of Co-60 are used to kill micro-organisms, and to prevent seed germination,
and to slow down ripening and rotting
Industrial uses
β- particles from Sr-90 decay are used to monitor the thickness of sheet/film products, e.g. aluminium foil
γ rays associated with β- decay of Cs-137 are used in switches for precise liquid fill volumes in containers
γ rays associated with β- decay of Ir-192 are used to detect defects inside materials – known as non-
destructive testing
- -
 Radioactivity
Uses of Radio-isotopes - considerations for choice of isotope include:

- An activity* level, radiation penetration range and energy to do its work/be detected Only the
considerations
- A radioactive half-life long enough to do its work but short enough for it to decay quickly after are required
- A biological half-life† somewhat longer than its radioactive half-life knowledge

Use Isotope Activity Radiation Energy t½ rad t½ bio

(Ci/g) (keV)

Tracer Tc-99m 5,200,000gamma 141 6.01 hr 24 hr

Tracer F-18 93,000,000 2  gamma 2  511 109.8 min 8 min – 24 hr
Tracer I-131 gamma
125,000 364 8.025 days 138 days
Radiotherapy I-131 & beta- 192
TAT Bi-213 426,000 alpha 5,875 45.6 min 5 days
upon alpha 1,470
NCEPT B-10 + neth bombardment instantly 9 days
& Li 840
... for C-14 4.5
comparison Ra-226 1.0
Rn-222 150,000 * - the number of disintegrations per second per gram
Neutron Capture Enhanced Particle Therapy (this is actually inversely proportional to the half-life)
Targeted Alpha Therapy † - the half-life to be flushed out of the body
- not in the syllabus at this level Radioactivity
Radiation Therapy - using X-rays
(“XRT”)
X-rays are strictly not a form of radioactivity (they do not come
from the nucleus), and are a form of electromagnetic radiation
Microwaves from a magnetron (as in a standard microwave
oven) are used to inject electrons that have evaporated from a
heated tungsten filament into a linear accelerator that uses
oscillating cylindrical electric potentials along the beam length
to bring the electron velocity close to the speed of light
The electrons are focussed onto a tungsten target that produces
a cone of X-rays that are focussed and formed by multiple
leafs of tungsten foil into intricate shapes designed to match
the tumour structure
The whole X-ray delivery assembly is rotated around the body so as to minimise damage to healthy tissue, but
to concentrate the dose at the iso-centre of rotation. (The body also can be rotated in the horizontal plane
around the iso-centre, and the motorised platform positions the body relative to the iso-centre)
The ‘bottom’ plate on the machine collects the radiation, and the side apparatus is for imaging
 Radioactivity
- the CT X-ray detector
Computed tomography - the build of a 3-D is tuned also to detect
-rays associated with
picture from 2-D slices
+ decay
- The CT scan uses a ~3 Hz rotating X-ray source and
detector ‘set-up’ to indicate tissue structure by measuring
the X-ray attenuation
… a contrast agent can be injected to highlight soft
tissue structure (usually blood vessels)
- The PET scan (positron emission tomography) uses the
two gamma ray emissions from positron-electron
annihilation to pin-point the site of concentration of the
parent radio-labelled ‘tracer’ molecule, which indicates
the site of diseased tissues C-11, N-13, O-15 or F-18
+
all undergo β decay
- usually an iodinated benzene compound
… the iodine k-shell electron binding energy of 33.2 keV
absorbs the average X-ray energy, like bones, and so CT scans indicate structure, whereas
appears light on the developed film PET scans indicate tissue function
- not in the syllabus at this level Radioactivity
Gamma Knife Radiosurgery

The βeta- decay of Co-60, with a half-life of 5.27 yrs, produces

two mono-energetic γ-rays

192 cobalt sources are positioned to deliver focussed beams to

the 0.3 mm radius centre-’point’ of the array, where the target
cancer or tumour of 2 mm to 4 cm is placed according to CT
and/or MRI imaging of the site

Positioning is by reference to a
frame screwed to the skull

Each individual beam poses little

risk, but where they meet, the
abnormality is killed by DNA
destruction
- not in the syllabus at this level Radioactivity
MRI Scanner - Magnetic Resonance Imaging
… nothing to do with radioactivity !
The main bulk of the machine is the outer superconducting
magnetic coils, cooled to 4 K with liquid helium, and thickly
insulated, producing a 3 Tesla field (60,000x the Earth’s).
This causes the spinning protons of hydrogen atoms to align
(most of them) with the core field, whilst precessing at a
frequency that is proportional to the strength of the field
Surrounding the core are three sets of electromagnets that
superimpose other fields so as to create a 0.02 T/m gradient
in the field in each axis. This creates a 3-D ‘pixel’ array of spatial positions
whose field strengths can be varied, and whose positions are known
A pulse of radiowave energy matching the precessional frequency will cause
some of the H atoms to ‘flip’ and resonate in phase. The timing of phase loss
and realignment of spin upon switching off the RF signal are different for
different tissue types (containing different molecules with H atoms) and a
series of gray-scale (720 grades) slice-pictures is produced
- you must know how this operates Radioactivity
Ionisation Smoke Detector
The dual chamber type has
one open to the air & one
which filters out particles
The α2+ decay of Am-141,
with a half-life of 432 yrs,
from a 5 mm foil disc of
AmO2 (0.3 μg) ionises the
air and causes a current to
flow between two
oppositely charged plates
Smoke particles entering the (open) chamber attach to the ionised air, slowing them down and
reducing the current. The drop/difference in current is electronically detected to sound the alarm
The activity level of the source is 1 μCi, and the ~5.4 MeV average energy of the α-particle is
stopped by paper/skin. The estimated dose to an individual is ~30 nCi p.a. (1 millionth of NORM)
Radioactivity