ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
METALLURGY- ME3392
UNIT V
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
AND DEFORMATION
MECHANISMS
DEFORMATION
When stress is applied, materials deform
Deform is change in dimensions or forms
of matter
Caused by (i) Mechanical force and (ii)
Temperature gradient
Temporary (Elastic) or Permanent
(Plastic)
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
A temporary deformation of the crystals
through displacement of atoms
Under smaller loads
Strain is proportional to stress induced
Hooke’s Law applicable
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
Subsequent to elastic deformation if load
continues to raise
Does not regain its original shape
Elastic and anelastic strain disappear
Function of (i) applied stress, (ii)
temperature and (iii) strain rate
Irreversible changes in internal and
external state
Distortion of crystal and microstructure
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
Stamping of automobile parts
Pressing of ship shafting
Spinning of aluminum parts
Rolling of boiler plates, rails and “I”
beams
Drawing of wire
Extrusion of telephone cables
Forging of Crankshaft
MECHANISM OF PLASTIC DEFO
1. Slip
2. Twinning
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
Part of crystal moves, glides or slips over another
part along certain planes known as slip planes
Slip plane is a crystallographic plane in which
either slip is likely to occur or slip has taken place
Slip plane is the plane of greatest atomic density
and slip direction is the closest packed direction
within the slip plane
If more than one set of slip planes exists, slip
starts with the plane having maximum shear stress
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
Results in visible step on the surface of
the crystal
Cab be observed under microscope (slip
bands are visible)
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
Slip occurs when the shear stress resolved
along slip plane reaches a certain value
known as critical resolved shear stress
This is property of the material and does
not depend upon the structure
Depends upon composition and
temperature
Tensile and compressive force induce
shear stress which causes failure
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
Schmid’s Law
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
Shearing force must be same and
uniformly distributed
Vibrating atoms makes this condition
unattainable
Modern concept of slip states that slip
occurs step by step movement of
dislocations
Ex. Wrinkled paper or floor mat
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
Direction in which shear stress is least is the
direction with the shortest burgers vector (b) i.e.
the shortest displacement distance and the greatest
atomic density
F = f(G,b2); G= shear modules
Slip originates from a definite point and proceeds
by the movement of dislocations
A translatory motion along the sliding planes and
rotation of the specimen with respect to loading
Angles changes, more slip takes place, angle
becomes more acute
DEFORMATION BY SLIP
DEFORMATION BY TWINNING
Second deformation mechanism
Mostly occurs in h.c.p. materials
Instead of whole block, each plane of
atoms concerned moves in the same
direction, a definite distance such that the
movement of each plane is proportional to
its distance from the twinning plane
Each subsequent plane is greater by a
given fraction of the unit atomic spacing
DEFORMATION BY TWINNING
DEFORMATION BY TWINNING
Separates or divides the crystal into two
regions oriented in such a way that one
forms a mirror image of the other relative
to the twin plane between them
Gives a appearance that two parts of the
crystal are joined by twin bands
Causes extensive change in shape
May facilitate further slip
DEFORMATION BY TWINNING
Also proceeds by the movement of dislocation
Partial dislocation line anchored by two
dislocations that have a Burgers vector with a
screw component equal to the spacing of atom
planed in the twin
Rotating motion results and the partial
dislocation line moves up or down by one
plane each time
Causes by impact or thermal treatment or
plastic deformation
DEFORMATION BY TWINNING
DEFORMATION BY TWINNING
Two kinds of twins
◦ Mechanical twins (h.c.p. metals (Mg, Zn etc)
and b.c.c metals (W, alpha-iron), Formed in
iron by sudden shock is called as veumann
bands
◦ Annealing twins as a result of annealing after
plastic deformation. Formed due to change in
normal growth. (f.c.c. metals like Al, Cu, brass
etc)
DEFORMATION BY TWINNING
SLIP AND TWINNING
TYPES OF FRACTURE
What is fracture?
Simple fracture is the separation of a body
into two or more pieces in response to an
imposed stress that is static (i.e., constant
or slowly changing with time) and at
temperatures that are low relative to the
melting temperature of the material. The
applied stress may be tensile,
compressive, shear, or torsional
TYPES OF FRACTURE
1. Ductile Fracture (> 5 %)
2. Brittle Fracture (< 5%)
TYPES OF FRACTURE
FACTORS INFLUENCING
FRACTURE
1. Nature of material
2. Temperature
3. State of stress
4. Rate of loading
TYPES OF FRACTURE
DUCTILE FRACTURE
Appreciable plastic deformation before
failure and during propagation of crack
Preceded by localized deformation called
necking
Crack proceeds through grains
Known as cup and cone fracture
Mostly in F.C.C Materials
100% Ductile Au and Pb
Ex: Al, Brass
DUCTILE FRACTURE
DUCTILE FRACTURE
DUCTILE FRACTURE
BRITTLE FRACTURE
Littleplastic deformation before failure
Rapid rate of crack propagation with minimal
energy absorption
Separation normal to tensile axis
Mostly in H.C.P and B.C.C
Occurs along cleavage planes
Undesirable due to loss of lives
Increases with (i) decreasing temp. (ii)
Increasing strain rate and (iii) Triaxial stress
condition due to notch
BRITTLE FRACTURE
BRITTLE FRACTURE
TESTING OF MATERIALS
1. Destructive Testing
2. Non Destructive Testing (NDT)
TESTING OF MATERIALS
1. Tensile test
2. Compression test
3. Shear test
4. Hardness tests (Brinell, Vickers and
Rockwell),
5. Impact test (Izod and Charpy)
6. Fatigue test
7. Creep test
8. Fracture toughness test
TENSILE TEST
Determine tensile strength, yield
strength, % elongation, % reduction in
area and modulus of elasticity
Specimen preparation (Dog bone shape)
Using universal tensile tester
TENSILE SPECIMEN
TENSILE SPECIMEN
UNIVERSAL TENSILE TESTER
UNIVERSAL TENSILE TESTER
TENSILE TEST
TENSILE TEST
COMPRESSION TEST
Subjected to end loading which produces
a crushing action
Specimen length shortens
Length of the specimen should lesser than
that produce buckling (l/d < 10)
Circular, Square or rectangle cross section
Not a routine test but used for plastics,
ceramics
Not reliable as a measure of ductility
COMPRESSION TESTING
MACHINE
HARDNESS
A measure of a material’s resistance to
localized plastic deformation (e.g., a small
dent or a scratch)
HARDNESS TESTS
1. Brinell Hardness Test
2. Vickers Hardness Test
3. Rockwell Hardness Test
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
Pressing a 10 mm hardened steel ball into
the test specimen
Apply desirable load (500,1500, 3000 kg)
Measure the diameter of the indentation
using micrometer microscope
Calculate the hardness
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
Pressing a 10 mm hardened steel ball into
the test specimen having flat surface
Apply desirable load (500,1500, 3000 kg)
Measure the diameter of the indentation
using micrometer microscope
Calculate the hardness
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
VICKERS HARDNESS TEST
Square based diamond pyramid indenter
with a included angle of 1360 is pressed
against the specimen
Load range 1 to 120 kg
Impression is a square which is measured
Calculate the hardness
VICKERS HARDNESS TEST
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
Indenter and loads are small compared to
Brinell test
Materials hardness beyond the scope of
Brinell test are tested
Faster without measurement
No surface preparation is needed
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
1. Test piece is placed
2. Hand wheel is turned to set the dial zero
3. Major load (100 or 150 kg)is applied
4. Withdrawal of the major load and while
minor load (10kg) is applied
5. Hand wheel is turned and the piece is
lowered
6. Read the value on the dial
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
B scale C scale
Steel ball indenter Diamond cone
Medium hardness indenter
materials Harder materials
Range 0 to 100 Range above 100
Major load 100 kg Major load 150 kg
HARDNESS TESTS
IMPACT TEST
Behavior of materials under dynamic
loading
Ex: bending or torsion
Notched specimen is broken by a single
blow
Energy absorbed by the specimen is
calculated
Indication of relative toughness
Two types: CHARPY and IZOD
IMPACT TEST
IMPACT TEST
IMPACT TEST
1. Pendulum weight is raised to standard height
which has some potential energy
2. Pendulum is released (potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy)
3. Pendulum hits the specimen
4. Portion of kinetic energy is used to rupture the
specimen and pendulum rises to a height lesser
than initial height
5. Difference in height multiplied by weight is the
energy consumed by the specimen
6. Dial indication gives direct reading
IMPACT TEST
IMPACT TEST
IMPACT TEST
IMPACT TEST
FATIGUE TEST
Material fail below their strength due to
fluctuating loads is known as fatigue
A stress below which no failure occurs is
known as endurance limit
Fatigue tests helps to estimate the
endurance limit
FATIGUE TEST
FATIGUE TEST
FATIGUE TEST
FATIGUE TEST
FATIGUE TEST
Stress is applied to cause failure
Several specimens are tested under
different stress conditions in the order of
decreasing and results are plotted as stress
(S) in Y axis and number of cycles (N) in
X axis which cause failure
FATIQUE FRACTOGRAPH
CREEP TEST
Materials are often placed in service at
elevated temperatures and exposed to
static mechanical stresses (e.g., turbine
rotors in jet engines and steam generators
that experience centrifugal stresses, and
high-pressure steam lines). Deformation
under such circumstances is termed creep
Creep is deformation at constant stress
and temperature
CREEP TEST
CREEP TEST
CREEP TEST
CREEP TEST
Coarse grain materials exhibit higher
creep resistance
Grain boundaries act as centers for the
generation of dislocations at high
temperature
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS TEST
1. Center notched tension
2. Compact tension
3. Three point bend
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS TEST
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS TEST
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS TEST
