File System

and
Memory Management

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File System

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Introduction
All computer applications need to
store and retrieve information.
Several storage media such as
magnetic disk, tapes.
To store information on disks and
other external media in units called
“File”.
Files are managed by OS.

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File Extensions
.ppt
.doc
.c
.xls
.pdf
.html
.db
.obj
.mp3
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Attributes of Files
Name
Identifier
Type
Location
Size
Protection
Time, date and user identification
Password
Creator or Owner
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Operations on Files
Create
Open
Close
Write
Read
Append
Delete
Seek
Rename
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 File Types
Following types of files are available in
OS
Simple file system (Regular files)
Basic file system (Directories)
Character special files (Logical files)
Block special files (Physical files)

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File System Structure
Byte Sequence
Record Sequence
Tree of Records

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Access Methods
There are several ways that the information
in the file can be accessed.
1. Sequential Access
2. Direct Access

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 1. Sequential Access
Information in the file is processed in
order , one record after the other.

Beginning Current Position End

Rewind Read or Write

Fig. Sequential Access

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Advantages
Easy to access the next record.
Data organization is very simple.

Disadvantages
Wastage of memory.
Performance is poor.

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 2.Direct Access
Direct access allows random access to
any file or block.ods

Block 0 Block 1 Block 2 Block n

Fig. Direct Access Meth

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Advantages
Veryfast direct access.
Hashing is used.

Disadvantages
It has not particular sequence

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File Allocation Methods
On secondary storage a file consists
of a collection of blocks.
File management system is
responsible for allocating blocks of
files.
Allocate the space to files effectively
utilized and files can be quickly
accessed.
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Methods of allocating disk space
1. Contiguous
2. Linked
3. Indexed

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1.Contiguous
This method requires each file to
occupy a set of contiguous address on
the disk.
Disk addresses define a linear
ordering on the disk.
The number of disk seeks required to
access blocks.

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Fig. Contiguous file allocation

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Advantages
Even direct access is fast.
Quick and easy calculation of block.

Disadvantages
There
is no best place to put a new file.
Compaction may be required.

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2.Linked allocation
In this type of allocation each file is
a linked list of disk blocks.
The disk blocks may present
anywhere on the disk.
The directory contains a pointer to
the first as well as last block of the
file.

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Fig. Linked allocation
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Advantages
Starting and ending of file can be easily
found.
It is used for sequential access.

Disadvantages
Pointer is needed.
Not effective for direct access.

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3.Indexed allocation
Index allocation brings all pointers
together into one location called as
indexed block.
When the file is created all the
pointers in the indexed block will be
set to null.
Index support direct access.

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Fig. Indexed allocation

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Advantages
Block creates the set of pointer at one
location
Accessing index block is easy.

Disadvantages
Decide the block size for each file is
complicated.
Storing many addresses i.e pointers
becomes an overhead.

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Directory Structure
To keep track of files , file system
normally have directories or folders.
There are several of directory
system.
1. Single level directory system.
2. Two level directory system.

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1.Single level Directory

Root Directory

A B C

Fig. Single level Directory

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 2.Two level Directory System
Root Directory

User 1 User 2 User 3

C D
A
B

Fig. Two level directory

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Introduction
Memory either can be volatile
memory and non-volatile memory.
Memory consist of large array of
words or bytes each with its own
address.
Memory that the processors directly
access for instructions and data.

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Functions of Memory Management
Keeping track of the status of each
memory location.
Determine the allocation and
deallocation technique and policy.
CPU fetches the instructions from
memory according to the value of
PC.

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 User 1

CPU Memory I/O User 2

System
User 3

Fig. Nature of Memory in a computer System

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Memory Partitioning
The method of dividing the memory into
several small parts, these parts are called
as partitions.
Mainly two types of methods are used for
partitioning.
1. Fixed Partitioning(Static Memory
Partitioning)
2. Variable Partitioning(Dynamic Memory
Partitioning)
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 1. Fixed Partitioning
The partition made in this method are of
fixed size.
8M 8M
8M 2M
8M 4M
8M 6M
8M 8M
8M 8M
8M 12 M
8M 9M
8M 16 M

Fig a .Equal Size Partitions Fig b. Unequal Size Partitions

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Advantages
Simple to implement.
Does not require expertise to system.

Disadvantages
Wastageof memory.
Memory is not fully utilized.

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2.Variable Partitioning.
This is also called as dynamic memory
partitioning.

8 MB 8 MB 8 MB
Process 1 20 MB Process 1 20MB

56 MB
Process 2 26MB
36 MB
10MB

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Free Space Management Techniques
To keep track of free disk space , the
system maintains a free space list.
In free space management technique
mainly two methods are as follows.
1. Bitmap.
2. Linked List.

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Bitmap
The memory is divided into number
of allocation units.
Each unit is then further divided into
bits.
‘0’ indicates that unit is free.
‘1’ indicates that unit is allocated.

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 Bitmap :- 000011100111110………

0123456789 15

Memory
Free Allocated

Fig. Bitmap representation

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Linked List
In a linked list a record is created for each
variable partition.
Each record maintain following
information.
1. Allocated/Free
2. Starting unit number
3. No. of units
4. Pointer to the next entry

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F 0 4 A 4 3 F 7 2

F 9 5 A 14 2 F 16 1

A 17 3 F 20 4 A 24 1 *

Fig. Linked List

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Compaction
Compaction shuffles the free memory
locations together in one large block.
If static memory reallocation is done then
it is not possible to implement compaction
due to it’s difficult to relocate internal
addresses.
1. First fit
2. Best fit
3. Worst fit
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Paging
Dynamic memory partitioning
suffers from external fragmentation.
To overcome this we can use
compaction or paging.
It allows a program to be allocated
physical memory wherever it is
available.

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Paging……
In paging physical memory is broken into
fixed size blocks called “frames.”
Also logical memory is broken into fixed
size blocks called as “pages.”
The logical address is in the following
form.

Page number Offset

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 Physical
Address
Logical
Address

CPU p d f d Physical
Memory

p
f
Page Table

Fig. Paging hardware

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 Frame
Page 0 Number
0
Page 1 1
Page 2 2
Page 3 3 3 Page 3
Logical 4
5
memory 5
7 Page 5
9 6
Page table 7 Page 7
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Fig. Paging model of logical and physical
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Page 9
memory
Physical Memory 44
Demand Paging
The hardware to support demand
paging is same as the required for
paging and swapping .
1. Page table
2. Secondary memory
3. s/w to solve page fault problem

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 Demand Paging
Disk

Program A 0 1 2

Swap Out
3 4 5

6 7 8

Program B Swap In 9 10 11

Main Memory 46
Page Replacement
1. FIFO page Replacement
2. Optimal page Replacement
3. LRU Page Replacement

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Virtual Memory
Virtual memory is the memory generated
from the physical memory devices like disk
when less amount of main memory is
available.
It is separation of logical memory from
physical memory.
Large virtual memory can be provided for
programmers on a smaller physical
memory.
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 Page 0
Page 1
Page 2
Disk

Memory map
Page n

Physical Memory
Virtual Memory

Fig. Virtual Memory

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Memory address generated by the
computer system is called as
virtual address.
It does not go directly to the
memory bus, they go to MMU.
MMU maps the virtual addresses
onto the physical memory
addresses.

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 CPU Sends virtual addresses to
MMU

CPU
Package

CPU
Memory Disk
M Controller
M
U

MMU Sends physical addresses to Bus

memory

Fig. Working to virtual memory

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Virtual address space is break up into
units called pages.
These units in the physical memory are
called as page frames.
Frames & pages are always of the same
size.
Ex:- MOV REG 1020

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Thank You

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