Vectors

Definitions

 A scalar is a quantity which has magnitude

only, e.g., temperature, mass, pressure.
 A vector is a quantity which has both: a

magnitude and a direction e.g., displacement,

Q
 velocity, magnetic field.
 The directed line segment
 -represents a vector P

 The length PQ- its magnitude

 Notations of vectors: ; ; ;
 Notations of magnitudes:|a| or ||a||
 The triangle rule.
We can add two vectors by
joining them head-to-tail:

it doesn't matter which

order we add them, we get
the same result:
a+b=b+a
This rule for adding vectors represented by line
segments is called the triangle rule.
 Subtraction of vectors
• -A is defined to be the vector with the
same magnitude as A but opposite
direction.
• 0 is the zero vector (or null
vector) with zero magnitude
and any direction.

To subtract, first reverse the vector we want to

subtract, then add using the triangle rule
Sample problem 1

Write as single vectors:

1.f + g

2.a + b

3.e - b - a

Answer:
1.e

2.-c

3.-d
 Multiplication by scalars
 We can multiply vectors by scalars (i.e. numbers).
 When p > 0, pa is defined to be the vector

with the same direction as and p times the magnitude of a.

 When p < 0, pa is the vector with the opposite direction

to a and -p = times the magnitude.

 Pictorially this looks like stretching or squeezing the

vector.
 When we multiply a vector by a scalar it is called "scaling"

a vector, because we change how big or small the vector

is.
 A vector of magnitude one is

called a unit vector.

m is a unit vector if = 1.
 A unit vector in the direction
 of a vector a is given by m =
Sample problem 2
 Triangles ABC and XYZ are equilateral.
 X is the midpoint of AB, Y is the midpoint

of BC, Z is the midpoint of AC.

 =a ; =b ; = c
 Express each of the

following in terms of a, b
and c.

1.
Sample problem 2 -answer
1. =c
2. =-a
3. ( = b+ c ( XCZ) or –a+2c ( AXC)
4. =b-a ( ZXB)or 2b-c ( ZBC) or -2a+c
( ABZ)
5. Z =2c
X
B a b
)

c
 Vector Components
 a = is a position vector P
 of the point P
 ax and ay - the Cartesian
 coordinates of P.
 By Pythagoras' Theorem

=. √ a x 2 + ay 2 O
 The unit vectors in 2D

corresponding to line
segments of length one
along the positive x and y
axes are denoted by i and j.
It follows from the triangle rule that we can write the position vector
of the point P with Cartesian coordinates (ax; ay) as
a= axi + ayj
 3D Vectors
 The position vector a = of a point P
P in 3D with Cartesian coordinates
(x; y; z) is:
 a = = a i + a j + a k; O
x y z
 By 3D version of Pythagoras'
Theorem:
= √ a x 2 + ay 2 + az 2
 Any 3D vector v can be written as a column matrix or a row

matrix(a; b; c),and be resolved as:

v = ai + bj + ck; where i = (1; 0; 0), j = (0; 1; 0), k = (0; 0; 1).
Zero vector – with components (0;0;0)
Vectors’ addition and scalar multiplication in terms of components

 Let a = (a1; a2; a3), b = (b1; b2; b3) be vectors then

 a + b = (a1; a2; a3)+ (b1; b2; b3) = (a1 + b1; a2 + b2; a3 + b3)
 Let k iz a scalar, then
 ka =(k a1; k b1; k c1) -Multiplying a vector by a scalar will
ONLY CHANGE its magnitude. Multiplying a vector by “-1”
does not change the magnitude, but it does reverse it's
direction
 Example.
 Vectors v and u are given by
v = (4 ; 1) and u = (u1 ; u2),
 find components u1 and u2 so that 2 v - 3 u = 0 .
 Solution:
 2v -3 u =(2*4-3 u1; 2-3 u2)=u1=8/3 ; u1=2/3
 Scalar Product
 Multiplying 2 vectors sometimes gives you a SCALAR
quantity which we call the SCALAR DOT PRODUCT P
 The Dot product formula is given by:

 a.b= cos()

 For parallel vectors in the same

direction (a.b=
 If they are in opposite directions then , cos = -1

and a.b= -
 If a and b are orthogonal, then and cos =0 Hence,

a.b = 0:
 Conversely, if a.b = 0 and a and b are non-zero

vectors, then cos = =0 and so


 Properties of dot product
Summarising we can list the dot product properties:
 u · v = |u||v| cos θ

 dot product with itself is non-negative : u⋅u=|u|2≥0

 dot product is commutative: u · v = v · u

 u · v = 0 when u and v are orthogonal.

 u · v= |u||v| when u and v are parallel

 0 · 0 = 0

 Scalar Multiplication Property : a(u·v) = (au) · v= u

· (a v)
 Distributive Property : (au + bv) · w = (au) · w +

(bv) · w
Scalar Dot Product in terms of vectors’ components

 At first let us find scalar product of unit vectors

 Since the standard unit vectors are orthogonal the
dot product between a pair of distinct standard unit
vectors is zero:
ij= jk=ik=0
 The dot product between a unit vector and itself:
ii= jj=kk=1
 Then using the dot product listed in the previous
slide we can write:
 a.b = (axi + ayj + azk)(bxi + byj + bzk)=
=axbxii+aybxji+azbxki +axbyij+ aybyjj+azbykj +
+azbxki+azbykj+azbzkk=axbx +ayby+azbz
Scalar Dot Product -examples
Example 1
 If a=(6,−1,3), for what value of c is the vector b=(4,c,

−2) perpendicular to a?
 Solution:

 For a and b to be perpendicular, we need their dot product to

be zero. Since:
 a.b=6*4+c*(-1) +3*(-2) = -c+18=0;

 c=18

 Example 2


Determine the angle between ν =(2, 5, 3) and ω =(1, - 2, 4)
 Solution:
= ===0.1416
 =1.5359rad
 Vector (Cross) Product
 Suppose that a and b are non-zero 3D vectors (the
vector product is only defined for 3D vectors).
 They determine a plane in which each lies. The vector
product (or cross product) is defined by
 a b = sin()n;
 where 0 is the
 angle between the positive
 directions of a and b, and
 n is the unit vector
 perpendicular to the plane
 of a and b, with direction
 determined by the
 right-hand-rule.
 (right handed screw)
 Vector Product properties
 We can summarise the vector product properties as
follows:(here a , b and c are vectors and is a scalar):
 a b = sin()n

 | a × b| = |a||b| sin θ

 The vector a b is perpendicular to both a and b.

 a a=0

 If a × b = 0, then a and b are parallel.

 And conversely :

 Two nonzero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if

a×b=0
 a × b = −b × a - the vector product is anti-commutative

 (a) × b = (a × b) = a × (b)- Scalar Multiplication Property

 a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c –distributive property

 (a + b) × c = a × c + b × c
 Vector Product in terms of vectors’ components
 For two vectors a and b defined by their components

 a( a1;a2;a3) and b( b1;b2;b3) the cross product is given

by the formula:

 Easy to memorise using the fact that the cross

The Method
product is really the determinant of aof3x3
Cofactors
matrix: to
calculate:

where,
 Vector Product in terms of vectors’ components
-2D
 Two 2D vectors a and b can be defined by

their components as a special case:

 a( a ;a ;0) and b( b ;b ;0), then the matrix for
1 2 1 2
the cross product:
==-+= == (-
Then = =
 Vector Product in terms of vectors’ components
 The second method is easier but it will only work on
3x3 determinants
 .

⃗
❑

 =a2b3+a3b1 +a1b2 -a1b3 -a3b2-a2b1 =(a2b3-a3b2)+ (a3b1-

a1b3)+ (a1b2- a2b1)
 Vector Product -example
 If = (2;1;-1) and =(-3;4;1)compute each of the
following:
 1) 2)
 Solution:

1)

2)
Geometrical interpretation of the Cross product
magnitude
 We can give a geometrical interpretation to the
magnitude of the vector product if we consider the
parallelogram below.
 The area of this parallelogram is

the magnitude of the vector

product:
 Area = base × height = h =

sin() = h= v


Geometrical interpretation of the Cross product
magnitude - example
 Find the area of triangle with P2
 vertices: P1(-1,0,1); P2(0,2,2); P 2
P1
⃗
P3 (0,-1,2); P2 3 P3
P1 ⃗
P 1 P
Solution:
We have to build vectors ,which describe the triangle
=(1,2,1); =(1;-1;1)
=Area of the parallelogram they enclose.
=(3-3)
= ; Area of P1P2P3 =
 The Scalar Triple Product
• The volume V of
this object is the
base area B times
the height h = cos.
• B= ,
• points up from the
right-hand-rule. ° Base area B
• Hence, we have:
The scalar product of three
Volume=Bh=
vectors a,b and c like the dot
=∥a×b∥ ∥c∥ |cosϕ|=
product evaluates to a single
|(a×b)⋅c|.
number.
Its absolute value is the
volume of the parallelepiped
spanned by a,b and c.