Introduction to

Political Science
DEFINITION, SCOPE AND APPROACHES
Definition
 Political science was defined in two different but interrelated ways namely

• Study of political institutions, the State or

government

• Study of phenomenon of power or force

in human society
Definition
 Dr. Stephan Leacock says that political science deals with the government.
 Professor G.W. Garner says “Political science begins and ends with the state.
 A French author, Paul Janet, writes that political science is that part of social sciences which treats of
the foundations of the State and the principles of government.
 Harold D. Lasswell, an American political scientist, declares that political science is primarily
concerned with the question: “who gets what, when and how?”
 David Easton, another American political scientist, he defines political science as “the study of those
actions more or less directly related to the making of authoritative allocations of resources and values.”
 In conclusion we may define political science as a systematic study of the state or government which is
a power structure making authoritative decisions and allocating resources and values for internal
security, and development and external defence.
 Derivation of the term “Politics”
 The term “politics” is derived from the word “polis” of the ancient Greek language.
 The word “polis” means a City State. It was the form of the State which the ancient Greeks had in their
country.
 All the activities and affairs of the City State were called by them as “politics”
 Aristotle one of the famous Greek philosophers; was the first thinker to make a systematic study of the
life and activities in the city states of his country in his well known book, entitled “politics”.
 Politics may mean:
i. An activity, an event, a process or a conflict or struggle among groups or people
ii. An occupation or public career
iii. A systematic study and a theory or philosophy of political activities, struggles or conflicts, etc.
 Scope of Political Science
 The definition of Political Science indicates its contents or the extent of its scope. It is a science of
politics in all its varied aspects. The whole subject-matter of Political Science can be summarized
under the following heads:
 Political Science as a study of the State:
The term ’state’ is understood in three senses: the State as it is, the State as it has been, and the State as
it ought to be.
 The State as it is:
When Political Science considers the State as it is, it tries to understand it in its fundamental conditions,
its essential nature, its various forms of manifestation and development. It studies the fundamental
nature of the state, its organization, its administrative machinery, its relations with the individuals who
compose it, the principles and practices of the modern state and its relations to other states. As, such
Political Science deals with statecraft, the art of statesmanship.
 Scope of Political Science
 The State as it has been
The state is a dynamic institution: it changes and progresses from one form to another. In other words, it
has a history and an evolution. Political Science surveys the historical development of the state and
considers the changes and forms which the state assumed in the past ages and in the present time. We
cannot know the present without knowing the past. This means we must study the origin’ and evolution of
the state and of its various institutions, e.g. of government and law, and the development of the mechanism
by which they function. Hence Political Science is a science of the past and present states’.
 The State as it ought to be
Study of the past and present of the state does not exhaust the scope of Political Science. We must also see
how far the existing structure of the state responds to the needs of the people and to their .well-being.
Knowledge of the past and present of the state enables us to reform our political institutions according to
our ideals and aspirations. It enables us to mould our ideals and to understand the principles on which the
state ought to be organized. It gives us the idea of what the state ought to be and inspires us to achieve it.
This makes Political Science a speculative study, dealing with the theories of the state and government,
expounded by political thinkers and philosophers.
 Scope of Political Science
 Political Science as a study of government
Political Science is also a study of the government and all its stands for Government is the working agency
of the state, its most vital part and its most important aspect. Just as a man cannot exist without a head, a
state cannot exist without a government. It makes laws and enforces them; it administers the country,
maintains peace and order in the state and defends it against its internal and external enemies. We,
therefore, study in Political Science the forms or kinds of government, its Various organs, and departments
and such other allied institutions as the local government, public services, or bureaucracy, etc. It considers
the questions of what the organs of the government are, what are their functions, how they are constituted
and, more importantly, what are the social and psychological factors and forces which determine how they
use their powers, take decisions and adopt policy. What Political Science aims at is to discover what
political life is, who are its actors, and what are its laws.
 Scope of Political Science
 Political Science as a study of power process
To consider Political Science as a study of state and government is an institutional approach to the study of
Political Science. It is, however, a partial view of it. Politics is a dynamic process , a power process. It is a
relation in which one ”actor” influences the behavior of another. ”Political Process” means the activities of
the people organized in various groups, such as parties, factions, or leaders of parties, factions or cliques
or groups, who struggle for and use power to achieve personal and group purposes by attaining position of
authority in the government, whether it is unitary, federal, provincial or local. It involves conflict which
may include not only violence, propaganda, pressure, guiles and frauds and character assassination, but
also slow building of consensus, and public opinion. By power is meant the capacity to influence events
and thereby to control the behavior of others. The greater the influence, the greater the power and,
therefore, greater the actor. Without power no leader, or ruler can realize his own interests or the interests
of a small minority or of his country. But the real test of power is the purpose for which it is used, or the
interests it seeks to satisfy. Political process operates in a system, in which power achievement is an input
and the satisfaction of interests, personal, of the group or nation, is the output.
Scope of Political Science
 Political Science as a study of political theory
Political theory is not political philosophy, which is a distinct discipline. Political theory is the
explanation of the nature and function of the state or political system, derived from data or descriptive
analysis, with a view to understand it. It implies prediction of what it will be in future. Theory is,
therefore, strictly an empirical thought. Of course, political theory has varied from age to age and from
time to time. In the past ages, it was influenced by religion, dogma and ideology. In the nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries, it was influenced by the institutional or static approach towards political life.
Accordingly, it dealt with such concepts as state, government, justice, liberty.
 Political Science as a study of political behavior
In the present times, i.e. since World War II, Political Science is influenced by such dynamic concepts as
political process, systems analysis, etc., which have now become part of Political Science. It has become
a behavioral science also.
 Scope of Political Science
 Political Science as a study of individual liberty and rights
A mere study of the state, government and law, though very important parts of the political study, is not
enough. Political Science also studies individual liberty. It considers the problems of adjusting political
authority to individual liberty, the relations among men, and their relations to the state. It also deals with
the rights and duties of the citizens towards one another and towards the state.
 Political Science and international Relations
Political Science also studies the conflicts, and relations between various states and nations in the world.
Relations between two or more states can be peaceful or full of conflict and hostility, As their is no
supreme authority in the world, conflicts between two or more states or nations sometimes result in war,
which is a method of deciding a disputes or conflicts between them by a resort to weapons of war and
victory on the battlefield. The victorious then has his way and allocates or captures the disputed territory
or country and controls it as it likes. Besides war, disputes between the states can also be settled by more
peaceful methods of negotiation and treaty relations, or by forming alliances in order to oppose rival group
of nations and states.
Approaches to the study of politics

Traditional Approaches

Scientific Approaches
Approaches to the study of politics
 Traditional Approaches  Scientific Approaches
 Historical Approach  Behavioral Approach
 Geographical Approach  Integrative Approach
 Philosophical Approach  Power Approach
 Legal Approach  Systems Approach
 Economic Approach
 Psychological Approach
 Sociological Approach
 Institutional Approach
 Historical Approach
 It is one of the oldest approaches. Aristotle in the ancient times, Ibn Khaldun in the Middle Ages and Machiavelli,
Montesquieu and many others in the modern times, have applied it in the study of politics. It is really a descriptive
approach, i.e., describing the historical origin and evolution of various political institutions and problems, such as the
origin of the state, and development of the parliamentary or cabinet system, etc.
 In fact, every political institution can be approached as a product of history. For this purpose, historical documents and
other source-materials can provide the knowledge of the way they came into being and can predict their future
evolution.
 The growth of a political theory is another interesting problem. Although every theory is a product of the times and
circumstances in which it was first expounded, but it has also a significance for all time to come. It is, therefore, useful
to know the conditions and motives of the historical situation in which it was first produced.
 Historical approach has, however, some limitations. First of all, it is sometimes not possible to have all the necessary documents,
records and other source-materials on a problem of the past. This is particularly difficult in many developing countries, where
libraries and archives are either non-existent or deficient.
 Secondly and more importantly, to discuss a problem in terms of its history may not throw much light on what it is today. This
approach is useful for a historian. But a political scientist is more concerned with the living problems of the present.
 In spite of this criticism, historical approach is immensely important in Political Science. The more we study political events,
institutions and theories as they existed in the past or as they were expounded by earlier writers, the more we understand their
present structure and the application of the theory and we can also know how they will change in the future.
 Geographical Approach
 Geography deeply affects all aspects and conditions of human life, whether they are social, cultural, economic,
religious or political. This is also true of political life and institutions. “The location of mountains, rivers and seas
has clearly a bearing on political developments all over the world". The same is true of such geographical
conditions as distribution of rainfall, differences in temperature, and of the availability of rails and roads, and other
means of transport and communication.
 In ancient Greece, for instance, they believed that the political systems also depended on the climate: e.g.,
democracy existed in temperate zones, while despotism was the fate of the people of the hot climate. Various racial
theories can also be used for such extreme purposes, For example, the theory of Herrenvolk or Master Race of the
Nazi dictator, Hitler, is a case of extreme geographical approach to politics. He declared that the German race was a
master race which would rule the world. But all such theories are false.
 No doubt geography does influence political life. But man is not a slave of geography. A scientific application of the
geographical approach, for example, is the influence of geographical conditions on the foreign policy decisions of a
country or state. It is known as geopolitics. According to it not only the foreign policy or international relations of a
state are determined by its geographical location, but even its frontiers are determined by its geography.
 To conclude: ”The facts of geography are clearly among those that influence many kinds of political decisions.
Accordingly, knowledge of geography may help provide a basis for predicting decisions that will be made and the
probable results of the decisions”.
 Philosophical Approach
 Philosophical approach is another traditional approach in Political Science. It was applied by Plato and
Aristotle in the ancient times, by al-Farabi, Ibn Sina and Ibn Rush’d in the Middle Ages and by Kant,
Hegel, Green, Bosanquet and Allama Iqbal in the modern times.
 Political Philosophers concentrate on the ideas, values and doctrines about politics and discuss the good
life and the best or ideal state to achieve.
 As such, philosophical approach is a normative approach in Political Science. The theories and doctrines
of the great philosophers are of immense importance for all times.
 In present times, however, the philosophical or normative approach has been seriously questioned. It is
considered to be insufficient by the political scientists of the behavioral and post behavioral schools. For it
makes Political Science unscientific and unsound.
 Legal Approach
 Another traditional approach is the study of legal and constitutional institutions of the state.
 It began with the study of Roman Law at the end of the Middle Ages in Europe. Its most important
contributions are the concept of state, and the theory of sovereignty during the early modern times.
 Later on, it contributed to the rise of constitutionalism as an essential basis of the state. At the same
time, the legal approach also contributed to the concept of international law.
 In Germany during the nineteenth century, it became the basis of the theory of state, known as
Staatslehre (in German).
 It was the beginning of Political Science as such. It dominated political thought for a long time and
made Political Science nothing more than the study of the state and government, law and
administration and international law.
 In other words, it made Political Science a mere legal and institutional study. It neglected such
bases of political life and activities as culture, social conditions and traditions and needs, motives
and impulses of human nature.
 Economic Approach
 It is a matter of common observation that economic conditions in a country have great influence on political
activities and relations. Aristotle was the first political thinker to show how wealth and poverty affected political
events and caused revolutions in the state. Many other thinkers have also said that political troubles and disputes
are due to economic interests and conflicts.
 But it was Karl Marx (1818-1883), who first explained these causes in a systematic and scientific manner. He
said that political conflicts are not due to differences in beliefs or ideology, but due to the clash of economic
interests of the haves and have-nots i.e. of the rich and poor classes.
 He writes, ”Men, developing their material production and their material intercourse, alter along this their real
existence, their thinking and the products of their thinking. Life is not determined by consciousness, but
consciousness by life.”
 Friedrich Engels, friend and collaborator of Karl Marx, puts it more expressly as thus: ”The ultimate cause of all
social change and political revolutions are to be sought, not. in the minds of men, but in changes in the modes of
production and exchange; they are to be sought not in the philosophy but in the economics of the period
concerned.”
 This was the Marxist economic approach to politics, which became the basis of the socialist and communist
movements. It has led to the socialist revolutions in Soviet Russia, Communist China and other countries of the
world in the twentieth century.
 Psychological Approach
 In the beginning of the twentieth century, the science of human nature, called psychology, has provided
a new approach to the study of Political Science. It was further influenced by Sigmund Freud’s theories
and techniques of psychoanalysis.
 However, an. English political scientist, named Graham Wallas, first emphasized the importance of
psychology for Political Science as early as 1908. He wrote: ”the efficacy of Political Science, its power
of forecasting the results of political causes, is likely to increase.... because modern psychology offers
us a conception of human nature much truer though more complex than that which is associated with
the traditional English political philosophy...(and) under the influence and example of the natural
sciences, political thinkers are already beginning to use quantitative rather than merely qualitative
words and methods, and are able therefore both to state their problems more fully and to answer them
with a greater approximation to accuracy”.
 In short, psychological approach emphasizes the use of quantitative methods in the study of Political
Science. But this was only the beginning. The quantitative methods and techniques of Political Science
were, however, fully developed by the behavioral political scientists nearly half a century after Graham
Wallas.
 Sociological Approach
 Auguste Comte in the middle of the nineteenth century in France laid the foundation of the new
science of sociology. It began to influence the study of politics also. It provided the sociological or
cultural approach to political problems and relations.
 But the philosophical, psychological, cultural and sociological approaches are now criticized,
because they reduce Political Science to a mere appendage to these disciplines.
 ”It would seem,” wrote Norman Jacobson, ”that politics is psychology, or it is sociology, that it is
moral philosophy or theology, that is to’ say, it is anything but politics”. Of course, there is no
harm in receiving intellectual tools and techniques from other social sciences and disciplines. But
this should be done in such a way as would help in the better understanding of politics.
 It means that the approach to Political Science be one that makes it an autonomous and
independent field of study.
 Institutional Approach
 The institutional approach is another traditional approach in Political Science, it seeks to make political
institutions, such as the state, government, parliament, etc., as the subject-matter of study. Indeed, this approach is
common in the study of politics. But the meaning of an institutional approach varies with the definition of
institution.
 It can be taken in a general or a narrow sense. In the general sense, Political Science is the study of the state or
government. In the narrow sense, it is the study of organ or office of the government or of a governmental activity.
As an organ, we may study a legislature or parliament, or the cabinet system; as an office, we may study the office
of a president or prime minister. Similarly, administration, bureaucracy, etc., are the objects of political studies. As
a matter of fact, greater portion of Political Science is the result of the institutional approach.
 Institutional approach has certain drawbacks. First of all, it neglects the individual, for it concentrates on the
group and its activities. Secondly, it does not take into view an important aspect of politics, namely the role which
violence and opposition play in politics. It fails to study such matters as disputes, controversies, quarrels, revolts,
aggressions and war, which are very common features of political life in all countries and in all ages.
 Instead, institutional approach assumes that there is no violence, no conflict and ”no confrontation in the political,
and constitutional institutions. But by neglecting the fact of conflict and violence in politics, the institutional
approach has failed to understand a very important aspect and problem of Political Science.
 Behavioral Approach
 Scientific Approaches
Unlike the traditional approaches, in scientific approaches the criteria of study are scientific objectivity,
freedom from personal bias, and verifiability of conclusions on the basis of experience or experiment.
The scientific approaches are the following:
 Behavioral Approach
 Modern technologies, like electronics and computers, as well as the techniques and methods of
statistics have-provided a new approach to the study of politics, first applied in the USA just after
the Second World War and later in other countries.
 It is the behavioral approach. It lays emphasis on quantitative measurement of the behavior or
activities of the individual in political life and relations.
 It studies mostly the micro political behavior of the individuals in the political system, and neglects
macro political aspects, such as the state.
 Integrative Approach
 Integrative approach seeks to overcome the limitations of behaviorism.
 Harold D. Lasewell, in his book: The Future of Political Science, declares that the study of
politics should be approached in both traditional and new methods and techniques.
 According to him, Political Science is a ”Policy Science”. As such, it should benefit from both
the traditional approaches of history, philosophy, law, sociology, psychology and anthropology
as well as from the tools and techniques of behaviorism, especially from those of modern
science. This is the integrative approach.
 It will provide better techniques for the interpretation of data, and for the development of
verifiable propositions, which will help political scientists in solving the problems of politics
appropriately.
 Power Approach
 In the traditional approach to Political Science, the concept of sovereignty was central to political study. In modern
times the concept of power has become central to its study.
 Power has different forms. It varies from the use of force or threat to use force to domination or influence which one
man or one group of men exercises over other man or group of men. It is ”men’s control over the minds and actions
of other man”. It can be a peaceful exercise, as the authority of an officer, or violent like a military action. It can be
exercised for the good of the other or for his injury. It is a struggle between two persons or parties to control
governmental power to decide matters of policy or acts of state.
 Decision making authority or power is both the object and result of power struggle. In other words, ”power is the
capacity to affect others without being as much affected.”No power is absolute. All power is exercised within certain
rules and conventions. Even the most powerful king respects the wishes and opinions of the persons close to him.
 The purpose of a constitution is to frame rules within which power will be exercised by the government. Even a
state without a constitution, such as a Martial Law government, has to work within some rules and conventions,
though unwritten or unexpressed.
 Power can be exercised politely or violently. ”It is said to manifest itself in situations ranging from a request that the
salt be passed ai the dining table to a situation in which states are exchanging all-out thermonuclear blows.” The
aims of the exercise of power are clear: it is to maximize one’s advantages over one’s opponent or enemy. But the
concept of power is too general.
 Systems Approach
 Politics can be approached as a system, that is, as a political system. It is an analogical approach. By a system we mean a
grouping of separate but interdependent parts which form a working whole to achieve some objective. Every system is a part of
a larger system, while it has also sub-systems within it.
 The larger system is the environment of a system, from which it receives some things, called inputs, and also gives out some
other things, called outputs. Some of the outputs are again recycled into the system, called feedback.
 Thus every system is an equilibrium i.e., a stable system of inputs and outputs. If its outputs are greater than its inputs, the
system becomes unstable. Unless a system is ”closed”, i.e., totally self-contained, it depends on links with the external
environment on which it depends for its survival. Hence it should adopt itself to its environment, which means to the larger
system of which it is a sub-system.
 As we said above, the systems theory is an analogy, which political scientists, like David Easton, or Almond, applied to the study
of politics. According to them, the whole human society is a social system, of which government is a political subsystem. But the
government, as a political system, consists of several sub-systems, such as legislature, executive departments, judicial system,
etc.
 Every system is a system of roles which are supported by norms and values of appropriate behavior and relationships, and of
snared values, symbols and beliefs, which provide the basis for the people to act together to achieve some objectives or goals.
 The advantage of the systems approach is help to the political scientists. It also enable them to study where a political system is
under strain, that is, where the inputs are not sufficient to balance the outputs. For example, a government may not receive
enough taxes to meet its expenditure. Thus a student of a political system can foretell or predict where or at what point or points
it is under strain or stress and what remedies can be adopted to restore its balance or equilibrium.