Quantitative

Reasoning - I
Discrete Structures
Instructor
Aamir Majeed Chaudhary

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 1

 What is Quantitative Reasoning?

 Quantitative reasoning is the ability to

understand, analyze, and solve mathematical
and numerical problems by using logical and
critical thinking skills. It involves applying
mathematical concepts and techniques to
make informed decisions, solve real-world
problems, and interpret data and quantitative
information effectively.
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 2
 Real Life Examples of QR

1. Budgeting: Managing personal finances involves

quantitative reasoning. People use it to create budgets,
allocate funds to different expenses, and track their
spending.
2. Grocery Shopping: Shoppers use quantitative
reasoning to compare prices, calculate discounts, and
determine the best deals. They may also use it to plan
meals based on nutritional values and costs.
3. Cooking and Baking: Following recipes requires
quantitative reasoning to measure ingredients accurately
and adjust serving sizes as needed.
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 3
 Real Life Examples of QR

4. Home Improvement: When renovating or decorating a

home, homeowners use quantitative reasoning to measure
spaces, calculate material quantities, and estimate
project costs.
5. Travel Planning: Planning a trip involves quantitative
reasoning for budgeting travel expenses, calculating
distances, and estimating travel times.
6. Investment and Saving: People use quantitative
reasoning when making investment decisions, calculating
interest rates, and projecting future savings and
earnings.
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 4
 Real Life Examples of QR

7. Health and Fitness: Quantitative reasoning is applied

to track calorie intake, monitor fitness progress, and set
goals for weight loss or muscle gain.
8. Car Maintenance: Vehicle owners use quantitative
reasoning to determine fuel efficiency, calculate
maintenance costs, and budget for car-related expenses.
9. Education: Students use quantitative reasoning in
subjects such as mathematics, science, and economics to
solve problems and interpret data.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 5

 Real Life Examples of QR

10. Career Planning: Professionals use quantitative

reasoning for tasks such as analyzing data, making
financial projections, and assessing the performance of
their business or projects.
11. Sports and Hobbies: Sports enthusiasts and
hobbyists apply quantitative reasoning to keep score,
analyze game statistics, and plan activities.
12. Medical Dosage: Healthcare providers use
quantitative reasoning to calculate medication dosages
based on a patient's weight and condition.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 6

 Real Life Examples of QR

13. Shopping Discounts: Shoppers use quantitative

reasoning to calculate the final cost of items after
applying discounts or coupons.
14. Home Energy Efficiency: Homeowners use
quantitative reasoning to evaluate the energy efficiency
of appliances and make decisions on energy-saving
upgrades.
15. Medical Diagnosis: Healthcare professionals use
quantitative reasoning when interpreting medical test
results and making diagnoses based on numerical data.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 7

 Definition
 Discrete mathematics / structures
is the part of mathematics devoted
to the study of discrete objects.
(Here discrete means consisting of
distinct or unconnected elements.)

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 8

 Definition
 Discrete structures refer to mathematical
structures that deal with countable, distinct, and
separate objects or values. These structures are
characterized by their discontinuity, meaning that
they do not involve continuous or smoothly varying
data. Discrete structures are commonly used in
various fields of computer science, mathematics, and
related disciplines to model and solve problems
involving finite or countable sets of elements.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 9

 Definition
 Discrete structures is the study of mathematical
structures that are fundamentally discrete in
nature rather than continuous.
 Discrete Structures is the language of computer
science.
 A set of discrete elements on which certain
operations are defined. Discrete implies non-
continuous and therefore discrete sets
include finite and countable sets but not
uncountable sets such as the real numbers.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 10

 Definition
 Discrete structures is the branch of mathematics
that deals with discrete objects. Discrete objects
are those which are separated from (distinct
from) each other, such as integers, rational
numbers, houses, people, etc. Real numbers are not
discrete.
 In this course, we’ll be concerned with objects
such as integers, propositions, sets, relations and
functions, which are all discrete. • We’ll learn
concepts associated with them, their properties,
and relationships among them.
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 11
 Examples of Discrete
Structures
 How many ways are there to choose a valid password on a computer
system?
 What is the probability of winning a lottery?
 Is there a link between two computers in a network?
 How can I identify spam e-mail messages?
 How can I encrypt a message so that no unintended recipient can read it?
 What is the shortest path between two cities using a transportation
system?
 How can a list of integers be sorted so that the integers are in increasing
order?
 How many steps are required to do such a sorting?
 How can it be proved that a sorting algorithm correctly sorts a list?
 How can a circuit that adds two integers be designed?
 How many valid Internet addresses are there?

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 12

Examples of Discrete Objects
1. Coins 10. Animals
2. Dice 11. Planets
3. Playing Cards 12. Socks
4. Books 13. Crayons
5. People
6. Fruits
7. Cars
8. Stamps
9. Houses

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 13

 Why Study Discrete
Structures?
 Discrete math is the foundation for the formal
approaches.
 It discusses languages used in mathematical
reasoning, basic concepts, and their properties and
relationships among them.
 It is also concerned with techniques to solve
certain types of problems such as how to count or
enumerate quantities.
 It helps you form a logical basis to decompose a
given problem into statements that make sense.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 14

 Why Study Discrete
Structures?
 To develop mathematical maturity. (The ability to
understand and create mathematical arguments.)
 It is the gateway to more advanced courses in all
parts of the mathematical sciences & computer
sciences.
 It contains necessary mathematical background
for solving problems in operations research,
chemistry, biology, engineering, and so on.
 Discrete structures is an excellent environment in
which to learn how to read and write mathematical
proofs.
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 15
 Let’s get started with...

Logic!

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 16

 Logic
 Logic is the basis of all mathematical reasoning.
 Crucial for mathematical reasoning. The rules of logic
give precise meaning to mathematical statements.
 Important for program design & developing
artificially intelligent machines
 Used for designing electronic circuitry

 Propositional Logic is a system based on propositions.

 A proposition is a (declarative) statement that is

either true or false (not both). We say that the
truth value of a proposition is either true (T) or false
(F). Propositions are the building blocks of logic.

 Corresponds to 1 and 0 in digital circuits

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 17
 Definitions
• Proposition is a sentence that declares a
fact.
• Propositions that cannot be expressed in
terms of simpler propositions are called
atomic propositions.
• The area of logic that deals with
propositions is called the propositional
calculus or propositional logic.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 18

 Proposition Examples
All the following declarative sentences are
propositions.
 Washington, D.C., is the capital of the
United States of America.
 Toronto is the capital of Canada.
 1 + 1 = 2.
 2 + 2 = 3.
Propositions 1 and 3 are true, whereas 2 and
4 are false.
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 19
 Examples
 Consider the following sentences.
1. What time is it?
2. Read this carefully.
3. x + 1 = 2.
4. x + y = z.

 Sentences 1 and 2 are not propositions because

they are not declarative sentences. Sentences 3
and 4 are not propositions because they are
neither true nor false.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 20

 Sentential Variables
 We use letters to denote propositional
variables (or sentential variables), that
is, variables that represent propositions,
just as letters are used to denote
numerical variables. The conventional
letters used for propositional variables
are p, q, r, s,… .

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 21

 Definitions
Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by
¬p (also denoted by p), is the statement
“It is not the case that p.”
The proposition ¬p is read “not p.” The truth value of
the negation of p, ¬p, is the opposite
of the truth value of p.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 22

 Exercise
• Find the negation of the proposition
“Vandana’s smartphone has at least 32 GB of
memory” and express this in simple English.

• “It is not the case that Vandana’s smartphone has

at least 32 GB of memory.”
• “Vandana’s smartphone does not have at least 32
GB of memory”
• “Vandana’s smartphone has less than 32 GB of
memory.”

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 23

 Exercise
Find the negation of the proposition
“Michael’s PC runs Linux”
and express this in simple English.

“It is not the case that Michael’s PC runs

Linux.”
Or
“Michael’s PC does not run Linux.”

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 24

 The Statement/Proposition Game

“Elephants are bigger than mice.”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth value

of the proposition? true

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 25

 The Statement/Proposition Game

“520 < 111”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth value

of the proposition? false

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 26

 The Statement/Proposition Game

“y > 5”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? no

Its truth value depends on the value of y,

but this value is not specified.
We call this type of statement a
propositional function or open sentence.
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 27
 The Statement/Proposition Game

“Today is January 27 and 99 < 5.”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth value

of the proposition? false

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 28

 The Statement/Proposition Game

“Please do not fall asleep.”

Is this a statement? no
It’s a request.

Is this a proposition? no

Only statements can be propositions.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 29

 The Statement/Proposition Game
“If the moon is made of cheese,
then I will be rich.”

Is this a statement? yes

Is this a proposition? yes

What is the truth value

of the proposition? probably true

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 30

 The Statement/Proposition Game
“x < y if and only if y > x.”
Is this a statement? yes
Is this a proposition? yes
… because its truth value
does not depend on
specific values of x and y.
What is the truth value
of the proposition? true
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 31
 Combining Propositions

As we have seen in the previous examples,

one or more propositions can be combined
to form a single compound proposition.

We formalize this by denoting propositions

with letters such as p, q, r, s, and
introducing several logical operators or
logical connectives.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 32

 Logical Operators (Connectives)
We will examine the following logical operators:
• Negation (NOT, )
• Conjunction (AND, )
• Disjunction (OR,)
• Exclusive-or (XOR,  )
• Implication (if – then,  )
• Biconditional (if and only if,  )
Truth tables can be used to show how these
operators can combine propositions to
compound
Fall 2023
propositions.
Discrete Structures 33
 Negation (NOT)

Unary Operator, Symbol: 

P  P
true (T) false (F)
false (F) true (T)

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 34

 Conjunction (AND)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 
P Q P Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 35

 Disjunction (OR)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 

P Q P Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 36

 Exclusive Or (XOR)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 

P Q PQ
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 37

 Implication (if - then)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 

P Q PQ
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 38

 Biconditional (if and only if)
Binary Operator, Symbol: 

P Q PQ
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 39

 Statements and Operators
Statements and operators can be combined in any
way to form new statements.

P Q P Q (P)(Q)
T T F F F
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T T T

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 40

 Statements and Operations
Statements and operators can be combined in any
way to form new statements.

P Q PQ (PQ) (P)(Q)

T T T F F
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F T T

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 41

 Exercises
• To take discrete mathematics, you must have
taken calculus or a course in computer science.
• When you buy a new car from Acme Motor
Company, you get $2000 back in cash or a 2%
car loan.
• School is closed if more than 2 feet of snow
falls or if the wind chill is below -100.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 42

 Exercises
• To take discrete mathematics, you must have
taken calculus or a course in computer science.
– P: take discrete mathematics
– Q: take calculus
– R: take a course in computer science
•P Q R
• Problem with proposition R
– What if I want to represent “take CMSC201”?

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 43

 Exercises
• When you buy a new car from Acme Motor
Company, you get $2000 back in cash or a 2%
car loan.
– P: buy a brand new car from Acme Motor Company
– Q: get $2000 cash back
– R: get a 2% car loan

•P Q R
• Why use XOR here? – example of ambiguity of
natural languages

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 44

 Exercises
• School is closed if more than 2 feet of snow
falls or if the wind chill is below -100.
– P: School is closed
– Q: more than 2 feet of snow falls
– R: wind chill is below -100

• (Q  R)  P
• Precedence among operators:
, , , , 

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 45

 Equivalent Statements
P Q (PQ) (P)(Q) (PQ)(P)(Q)

T T F F T
T F T T T
F T T T T
F F T T T

The statements (PQ) and (P)  (Q) are logically

equivalent, since they have the same truth table, or put
it in another way, (PQ) (P)  (Q) is always true.
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 46
 Tautologies and Contradictions
A tautology is a statement that is always true.
Examples:
– R(R)
– (PQ)  (P)( Q)
A contradiction is a statement that is always false.
Examples:
– R(R)
– ((P  Q)  (P)  (Q))
The negation of any tautology is a contradiction, and
the negation of any contradiction is a tautology.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 47

 Equivalence
Definition: two propositional statements
S1 and S2 are said to be (logically)
equivalent, denoted S1  S2 if
– They have the same truth table, or
– S1  S2 is a tautology
Equivalence can be established by
– Constructing truth tables
– Using equivalence laws (Table 5 in Section 1.2)

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 48

 Equivalence
Equivalence laws
– Identity laws, P  T  P,
– Domination laws, P  F  F,
– Idempotent laws, P  P  P,
– Double negation law,  ( P)  P
– Commutative laws, P  Q  Q  P,
– Associative laws, P  (Q  R) (P  Q)  R,
– Distributive laws, P  (Q  R) (P  Q)  (P  R),
– De Morgan’s laws,  (PQ)  ( P)  ( Q)
– Law with implication P Q PQ

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 49

 Implication

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 50

 Exercises
• Show that P  Q   P  Q: by truth table
• Show that (P  Q)  (P  R)  P  (Q  R):
by equivalence laws (q20, p27):
– Law with implication on both sides
– Distribution law on LHS

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 51

 Summary
•Proposition
– Statement, Truth value,
– Proposition, Propositional symbol, Open proposition
•Operators
– Define by truth tables
– Composite propositions
– Tautology and contradiction
•Equivalence of propositional statements
– Definition
– Proving equivalence (by truth table or equivalence
laws)
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 52
 Propositional Functions & Predicates
Propositional function (open sentence):
statement involving one or more variables,
e.g.: x-3 > 5.
Let us call this propositional function P(x), where
P is the predicate and x is the variable.
What is the truth value of P(2) ? false
What is the truth value of P(8) ? false
What is the truth value of P(9) ? true
When a variable is given a value, it is said to be
instantiated
Truth value depends on value of variable
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 53
 Propositional Functions
Let us consider the propositional function
Q(x, y, z) defined as:
x + y = z.
Here, Q is the predicate and x, y, and z are the
variables.
What is the truth value of Q(2, 3, 5) ? true
What is the truth value of Q(0, 1, 2) ? false
What is the truth value of Q(9, -9, 0) ? true
A propositional function (predicate) becomes a
proposition when all its variables are instantiated.
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 54
 Propositional Functions
Other examples of propositional functions
Person(x), which is true if x is a person
Person(Socrates) = T
Person(dolly-the-sheep) = F
CSCourse(x), which is true if x is a
computer science course
CSCourse(CMSC201) = T
CSCourse(MATH155) = F
How do we say
All humans are mortal
One CS course
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 55
 Universal Quantification
Let P(x) be a predicate (propositional function).

Universally quantified sentence:

For all x in the universe of discourse P(x) is true.

Using the universal quantifier :

x P(x) “for all x P(x)” or “for every x P(x)”

(Note: x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a

proposition, not a propositional function.)

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 56

 Universal Quantification
Example: Let the universe of discourse be all
people
S(x): x is a UMBC student.
G(x): x is a genius.
What does x (S(x)  G(x)) mean ?
“If x is a UMBC student, then x is a genius.” or
“All UMBC students are geniuses.”
If the universe of discourse is all UMBC students,
then the same statement can be written as
x G(x)

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 57

 Existential Quantification
Existentially quantified sentence:
There exists an x in the universe of discourse
for which P(x) is true.

Using the existential quantifier :

x P(x) “There is an x such that P(x).”
“There is at least one x such that P(x).”

(Note: x P(x) is either true or false, so it is a

proposition, but no propositional function.)

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 58

 Existential Quantification
Example:
P(x): x is a UMBC professor.
G(x): x is a genius.

What does x (P(x)  G(x)) mean ?

“There is an x such that x is a UMBC professor

and x is a genius.”
or
“At least one UMBC professor is a genius.”

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 59

 Quantification
Another example:
Let the universe of discourse be the real numbers.

What does xy (x + y = 320) mean ?

“For every x there exists a y so that x + y = 320.”

Is it true? yes

Is it true for the natural numbers? no

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 60

 Disproof by Counterexample
A counterexample to x P(x) is an object c so
that P(c) is false.

Statements such as x (P(x)  Q(x)) can be

disproved by simply providing a counterexample.

Statement: “All birds can fly.”

Disproved by counterexample: Penguin.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 61

 Negation

(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).

(x P(x)) is logically equivalent to x (P(x)).

See Table 2 in Section 1.3.

This is de Morgan’s law for quantifiers

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 62

 Negation
Examples
Not all roses are red
x (Rose(x)  Red(x))
x (Rose(x)  Red(x))

Nobody is perfect
x (Person(x)  Perfect(x))
x (Person(x)  Perfect(x))

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 63

 Nested Quantifier
A predicate can have more than one variables.
– S(x, y, z): z is the sum of x and y
– F(x, y): x and y are friends
We can quantify individual variables in different
ways
– x, y, z (S(x, y, z)  (x <= z  y <= z))
– x y z (F(x, y)  F(x, z)  (y != z)  F(y, z)

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 64

 Nested Quantifier
Exercise: translate the following English
sentence into logical expression
“There is a rational number in between every
pair of distinct rational numbers”

Use predicate Q(x), which is true when x

is a rational number
x,y (Q(x)  Q (y)  (x < y) 
u (Q(u)  (x < u)  (u < y)))

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 65

 Summary
• Propositional functions (predicates)
• Universal and existential quantifiers,
and the duality of the two
• When predicates become propositions
– All of its variables are instantiated
– All of its variables are quantified
• Nested quantifiers
– Quantifiers with negation
• Logical expressions formed by
predicates, operators, and quantifiers
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 66
 Let’s proceed to…

Mathematical
Reasoning

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 67

 Mathematical Reasoning
We need mathematical reasoning to
• determine whether a mathematical argument is
correct or incorrect and
• construct mathematical arguments.

Mathematical reasoning is not only important for

conducting proofs and program verification, but
also for artificial intelligence systems (drawing
logical inferences from knowledge and facts).

We focus on deductive proofs

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 68
 Some Definitions
Argument:
By an argument, we mean a sequence of
statements that end with a conclusion.
Valid:
By valid, we mean that the conclusion, or final
statement of the argument, must follow from
the truth of the preceding statements, or
premises, of the argument.
Fallacies:
Some common forms of incorrect reasoning, which
lead to invalid arguments.
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 69
 Terminology
An axiom is a basic assumption about mathematical
structure that needs no proof.
- Things known to be true (facts or proven theorems)
- Things believed to be true but cannot be proved

We can use a proof to demonstrate that a

particular statement is true. A proof consists of a
sequence of statements that form an argument.
The steps that connect the statements in such a
sequence are the rules of inference.
Cases of incorrect reasoning are called fallacies.
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 70
 Terminology
A theorem is a statement that can be shown to be
true.

A lemma is a simple theorem used as an

intermediate result in the proof of another
theorem.

A corollary is a proposition that follows directly

from a theorem that has been proved.

A conjecture is a statement whose truth value is

unknown. Once it is proven, it becomes a theorem.
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 71
 Proofs
A theorem often has two parts
- Conditions (premises, hypotheses)
- conclusion

A correct (deductive) proof is to establish that

- If the conditions are true then the conclusion is true
- I.e., Conditions  conclusion is a tautology

Often there are missing pieces between

conditions and conclusion. Fill it by an argument
- Using conditions and axioms
- Statements in the argument connected by proper
rules of inference

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 72

 Rules of Inference
Rules of inference provide the justification of
the steps used in a proof.

One important rule is called modus ponens or the

law of detachment. It is based on the tautology
(p  (p  q))  q. We write it in the following
way:
The two hypotheses p and p  q are
p written in a column, and the conclusion
p  q below a bar, where  means “therefore”.
____
q
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 73
 Rules of Inference

The general form of a rule of inference is:

p1 The rule states that if p1 and p2 and …

p2 and pn are all true, then q is true as well.
.
.
.
pn Each rule is an established tautology of
____ p1  p 2  …  p n  q
q
These rules of inference can be used in
any mathematical argument and do not
require any proof.
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 74
 Rules of Inference
p q
_____ p  q Modus
Addition _____ tollens
 pq
p

pq pq
_____ Hypothetical
Simplification qr
p _____ syllogism
 p r (chaining)
p
pq
q Disjunctive
_____ Conjunction p
 pq _____ syllogism
q (resolution)
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 75
 Rules of Inference

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 76

 Arguments
Just like a rule of inference, an argument consists
of one or more hypotheses (or premises) and a
conclusion.
We say that an argument is valid, if whenever all
its hypotheses are true, its conclusion is also true.
However, if any hypothesis is false, even a valid
argument can lead to an incorrect conclusion.

Proof: show that hypotheses  conclusion is true

using rules of inference

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 77

 Arguments
Example:
“If 101 is divisible by 3, then 1012 is divisible by 9.
101 is divisible by 3. Consequently, 1012 is divisible
by 9.”

Although the argument is valid, its conclusion is

incorrect, because one of the hypotheses is false
(“101 is divisible by 3.”).

If in the above argument we replace 101 with 102,

we could correctly conclude that 1022 is divisible
by 9.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 78

 Arguments
Which rule of inference was used in the last
argument?

p: “101 is divisible by 3.”

q: “1012 is divisible by 9.”
p
p  q Modus
_____ ponens
q

Unfortunately, one of the hypotheses (p) is false.

Therefore, the conclusion q is incorrect.
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 79
 Arguments

Another example:
“If it rains today, then we will not have a barbeque
today. If we do not have a barbeque today, then
we will have a barbeque tomorrow.
Therefore, if it rains today, then we will have a
barbeque tomorrow.”

This is a valid argument: If its hypotheses are

true, then its conclusion is also true.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 80

 Arguments
Let us formalize the previous argument:
p: “It is raining today.”
q: “We will not have a barbecue today.”
r: “We will have a barbecue tomorrow.”
So the argument is of the following form:

pq
qr Hypothetical
______ syllogism
Pr

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 81

 Arguments
Another example:

Gary is either intelligent or a good actor.

If Gary is intelligent, then he can count
from 1 to 10.
Gary can only count from 1 to 3.
Therefore, Gary is a good actor.

i: “Gary is intelligent.”
a: “Gary is a good actor.”
c: “Gary can count from 1 to 10.”

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 82

 Arguments
i: “Gary is intelligent.”
a: “Gary is a good actor.”
c: “Gary can count from 1 to 10.”

Step 1: c Hypothesis
Step 2: i c Hypothesis
Step 3: i Modus tollens Steps 1 & 2
Step 4: ai Hypothesis
Step 5: a Disjunctive Syllogism
Steps 3 & 4

Conclusion: a (“Gary is a good actor.”)

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 83
 Arguments
Yet another example:

If you listen to me, you will pass CS 320.

You passed CS 320.
Therefore, you have listened to me.

Is this argument valid?

No, it assumes ((p  q) q)  p.

This statement is not a tautology. It is false if p is
false and q is true.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 84

Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements
x P(x)
__________ Universal
 P(c) if cU instantiation

P(c) for an arbitrary cU

___________________ Universal
 x P(x) generalization

x P(x)
______________________ Existential
 P(c) for some element cU instantiation

P(c) for some element

____________________ cU Existential
 x P(x) generalization
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 85
Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements

Example:

Every UMB student is a genius.

George is a UMB student.
Therefore, George is a genius.

U(x): “x is a UMB student.”

G(x): “x is a genius.”

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 86

Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements

The following steps are used in the argument:

Step 1: x (U(x)  G(x)) Hypothesis
Step 2: U(George)  G(George) Univ. instantiation
using Step 1
Step 3: U(George) Hypothesis
Step 4: G(George) Modus ponens
using Steps 2 & 3

x P(x)
__________ Universal
 P(c) if cU instantiation

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 87

 Proving Theorems
Direct proof:
An implication p  q can be proved by showing
that if p is true, then q is also true.
Example: Give a direct proof of the theorem
“If n is odd, then n2 is odd.”
Idea: Assume that the hypothesis of this
implication is true (n is odd). Then use rules of
inference and known theorems of math to show
that q must also be true (n2 is odd).

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 88

 Proving Theorems

n is odd.

Then n = 2k + 1, where k is an integer.

Consequently, n2 = (2k + 1)2.

= 4k2 + 4k + 1
= 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1

Since n2 can be written in this form, it is odd.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 89

 Proving Theorems
Indirect proof:
An implication p  q is equivalent to its contra-
positive q  p. Therefore, we can prove p  q
by showing that whenever q is false, then p is also
false.
Example: Give an indirect proof of the theorem
“If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.”
Idea: Assume that the conclusion of this
implication is false (n is even). Then use rules of
inference and known theorems to show that p
must also be false (3n + 2 is even).
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 90
 Proving Theorems
n is even.

Then n = 2k, where k is an integer.

It follows that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2

= 6k + 2
= 2(3k + 1)

Therefore, 3n + 2 is even.

We have shown that the contrapositive of the

implication is true, so the implication itself is also
true (If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd).
Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 91
 Proving Theorems
Indirect Proof is a special case of proof by
contradiction

Suppose n is even (negation of the conclusion).

Then n = 2k, where k is an integer.
It follows that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2
= 6k + 2
= 2(3k + 1)
Therefore, 3n + 2 is even.

However, this is a contradiction since 3n + 2 is given

to be odd, so the conclusion (n is odd) holds.

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 92

 Another Example on Proof
Anyone performs well is either intelligent or a
good actor.
If someone is intelligent, then he/she can count
from 1 to 10.
Gary performs well.
Gary can only count from 1 to 3.
Therefore, not everyone is both intelligent and a
good actor
P(x): x performs well
I(x): x is intelligent
A(x): x is a good actor
C(x): x can count from 1 to 10

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 93

 Another Example on Proof
Hypotheses:
1. Anyone performs well is either intelligent or a good
actor.
x (P(x)  I(x)  A(x))
2. If someone is intelligent, then he/she can count
from 1 to 10.
x (I(x)  C(x) )
3. Gary performs well.
P(G)
4. Gary can only count from 1 to 3.
C(G)
Conclusion: not everyone is both intelligent and a good
actor
x(I(x)  A(x))

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 94

 Another Example on Proof
Direct proof:
Step 1: x (P(x)  I(x)  A(x)) Hypothesis
Step 2: P(G)  I(G)  A(G) Univ. Inst. Step 1
Step 3: P(G) Hypothesis
Step 4: I(G)  A(G) Modus ponens Steps 2 & 3
Step 5: x (I(x)  C(x)) Hypothesis
Step 6: I(G)  C(G) Univ. inst. Step5
Step 7: C(G) Hypothesis
Step 8: I(G) Modus tollens Steps 6 & 7
Step 9: I(G)  A(G) Addition Step 8
Step 10: (I(G)  A(G)) Equivalence Step 9
Step 11: x(I(x)  A(x)) Exist. general. Step 10
Step 12: x (I(x)  A(x)) Equivalence Step 11

Conclusion: x (I(x)  A(x)), not everyone is both

intelligent
Fall 2023
and a good actor.
Discrete Structures 95
 Summary
• Terminology (axiom, theorem, conjecture,
argument, etc.)
• Rules of inference (Tables 1 and 2)
• Valid argument (hypotheses and conclusion)
• Construction of valid argument using rules of
inference
– For each rule used, write down and the
statements involved in the proof
• Direct and indirect proofs
– Other proof methods (e.g., induction, pigeon hole)
will be introduced in later chapters

Fall 2023 Discrete Structures 96