Management in Organizations

Effective Communication

Discussion
What is communication?

Any differences between communication in

the organization and personal communication?

Understanding Managerial Communication

What is Communication?

The transfer and understanding of meaning if no information has been conveyed, communication has not occurred everything that a manager does involves communicating effective communication does not equal agreement ineffective communication is the basis for many managerial problems The sharing of information between two or more individuals or groups to reach a common understanding.

Prentice Hall, 2002

Communication in Organization
interpersonal

communication occurs between people organizational communication - all the patterns, networks, and systems of communication in an organization

Discussion
What are the functions of communication?

Based on your current workplace, why do you

need communication?

Functions of Communication
Control: Communication acts to control member behavior in several ways Motivation: Communication fosters motivation by clarifying to employees what is to be done, how well they are doing, and what can be done to improve performance. Emotional Expression: Communication provides a release for the emotional expression of feelings and for fulfillment of social needs. For many employees, their work group is a primary source for social interaction. Information: Communication facilitates decision making. It provides information by transmitting the data to identify and evaluate alternative choices.

Importance of Good Communication

Increased efficiency in new technologies and skills Improved quality of products and services Increased responsiveness to customers More innovation through communication

Direction of Communication

Downward

Lateral

Upward

Directions For Information Flows In Organizations

Downward Communication To Influence: Strategies Objectives Instructions Policies Feedback

Superior
To Inform: Problems Results Suggestions Questions Needs Upward Communication

Peer

Manager

Peer

Subordinates
Lateral Communication To Coordinate: Problems, Needs, Advice, Feedback

Elements of the Communication Process

Sender

Encoding
Message Channel Decoding Receiver Noise Feedback

The Communication Process: Model

Communication Process
The steps between a source and a receiver that result in the transference and understanding of meaning

The Communication Process: Feedback is Essential

Feedback Ensures that communication is an exchange not only a one-way transmission of a message. Even for formal speeches, feedback ensures message is transmitted accurately

The Communication Process

The Communication Process: Channel

Channel The medium selected by the sender through which the message travels to the receiver. Types of Channels Formal Channels Are established by the organisation and transmit messages that are related to the professional activities of members Informal Channels Used to transmit personal or social messages in the organisation. These informal channels are spontaneous and emerge as a response to individual choices

Discussion
What type of communication channel you use

most in your workplace? Why?

Choice of Communication Channel

Channel Richness
The amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode Characteristics of Rich Channels: 1. Handle multiple cues simultaneously

2. Facilitate rapid feedback

3. Are very personal in context

Information Richness of Communication Channels

Low channel richness

High channel richness

Routine
Source: Based on R.H. Lengel and D.L. Daft, The Selection of Communication Media as an Executive Skill, Academy of Management Executive, August 1988, pp. 22532; and R.L. Daft and R.H. Lengel, Organizational Information Requirements, Media Richness, and Structural Design, Managerial Science, May 1996, pp. 55472. Reproduced from R.L. Daft and R.A. Noe, Organizational Behavior (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt, 2001), p. 311.

Nonroutine

Information Richness of Communication Media

Communication Media/Channel
Face-to-Face

Has highest information richness. Can take advantage of verbal and nonverbal signals. Provides for instant feedback.

Management by wandering around takes advantage of this with informal talks to workers. Video conferences provide much of this richness and reduce travel costs and meeting times.

Communication Media/Channel (contd)

Spoken Communication Electronically

Transmitted

Has the second highest information richness.

Telephone conversations are information rich with tone of voice, senders emphasis, and quick feedback, but provide no visual nonverbal cues.

Communication Media/Channel (contd)

Personally Addressed Written

Communication

Has a lower richness than the verbal forms of communication, but still is directed at a given person.

Personal addressing helps ensure receiver actually reads the messagepersonal letters and e-mail are common forms. Does not provide instant feedback to the sender although sender may get feedback later. Excellent media for complex messages requesting follow-up actions by receiver.

Communication Media/Channel (contd)

Impersonal Written Communication

Has the lowest information richness.

Good for messages to many receivers where little or feedback is expected (e.g., newsletters, reports)

Communication Networks
Communication Networks

The pathways along which information flows in groups and teams and throughout the organization. Choice of communication network depends on:

The nature of the groups tasks The extent to which group members need to communicate with each other to achieve group goals.

Communication Networks in Groups and Teams

Type of Network
Wheel Network Chain Network Information flows to and from one central member. Members communicate only with the people next to them in the sequence.

Wheel and chain networks provide little interaction. Circle Network All-Channel Network Members communicate with others close to them in terms of expertise, experience, and location. Networks found in teams with high levels of communications between each member and all others.

Communication Networks in Groups and Teams

Communication Epigrams

Communication Epigrams

Organization Communication Networks

Organization Chart

A pictorial representation of formal reporting channels in an organization. Communication in an organization flows through formal and informal pathways Vertical communications flow up and down the corporate hierarchy. Horizontal communications flow between employees of the same level. Informal communications can span levels and departmentsthe grapevine is an informal network carrying unofficial information throughout the firm.

Formal and Informal Communication Networks in An Organization

Discussion
What are the factors you will consider when

choosing a communication channel or method at workplace?

Evaluating Communication Methods

Feedback Complexity capacity Breadth potential Confidentiality Encoding ease Decoding ease Time-space constraint Cost Scanability Time of consumption Interpersonal warmth Formality
how quickly can the receiver respond to the message? can the method effectively process complex messages? how many different messages can be transmitted using this method? can communicators be reasonably sure their messages are received only by those intended? can sender easily and quickly use this channel? can receiver easily and quickly decode messages? do senders and receivers need to communicate at the same time and in the same space? how much does it cost to use this method? does this method allow the message to be easily browsed or scanned for relevant information? does sender or receiver exercise the most control over when the message is dealt with? how well does this method convey interpersonal warmth? does this method have the needed amount of formality?

Process Of Interpersonal Communication

Methods of Communicating Interpersonally nonverbal communication - communication without words types body language - gestures, facial expressions, and other body movements that convey meaning verbal intonation - emphasis someone gives to words or phrases that conveys meaning every oral communication is accompanied by a nonverbal message nonverbal component usually carries the greatest impact
Prentice Hall, 2002 11-31

Interpersonal Communication: Oral versus Written

Oral Communication

Advantages: Speed and feedback Disadvantage: Distortion of the message Advantages: Tangible and verifiable Disadvantages: Time consuming and lacks feedback

Written Communication

Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication The transfer of meaning through means such as body language and use of physical space Kinesics The study of communication through body movement and facial expression

Eye contact Posture Gestures

Chromatics The use of color to communicate messages

Nonverbal Communication
Proxemics

The study of the way that people use physical space to convey messages

Intimate distance is used for very confidential communications Personal distance is used for talking with family and close friends Social distance is used to handle most business transactions Public distance is used when calling across the room or giving a talk to a group

Personal Space in the U.S.

Intimate distance Personal distance 18 18 to 4

Social distance
Public distance

4 to 8
8 to 10

Personal Space Categories for Those in the United States

Interpersonal Communication: Non-verbal

Non-verbal Communication

Advantages: Supports other communications and provides observable expression of emotions and feelings Disadvantage: Misperception of body language or gestures can influence receivers interpretation of message

Facial Expressions Convey Emotions

Prentice Hall, 2002

Non-verbal Communication: Possible Meanings of 1 Word

2 x (word emphasised or not) x 3 (high, medium or low tone of voice) x 3 (fast, medium or slow rate of speech) x 2 (with or without eye contact) x 6 (facial expressions) x 6 (hand gestures) x 4 (accompanying body movements) x 4 (simplified body postures) x 3 (close, medium or far physical distance)

= 62,208 possible meanings of one word!

Intonation in Speech: Its the Way You Say It!

Change your tone and you change your meaning:
Placement of the emphasis Why dont I take you to dinner tonight? Why dont I take you to dinner tonight? Why dont I take you to dinner tonight? Why dont I take you to dinner tonight? Why dont I take you to dinner tonight? Why dont I take you to dinner tonight? What it means I was going to take someone else. Instead of the guy you were going with. Im trying to find a reason why I shouldnt take you. Do you have a problem with me? Instead of going on your own. Instead of lunch tomorrow.

Why dont I take you to dinner tonight?

Not tomorrow night.

Source: Based on M. Kiely, When No Means Yes, Marketing, October 1993, pp. 79. Reproduced in A. Huczynski and D. Buchanan, Organizational Behaviour, 4th ed. (Essex, England: Pearson Education, 2001), p. 194.

Computer-Aided Communication
E-mail

Advantages: quickly written, sent, and stored; low cost for distribution. Disadvantages: information overload, lack of emotional content, cold and impersonal. Advantage: real time e-mail transmitted straight to the receivers desktop. Disadvantage: can be intrusive and distracting.

Instant messaging

Computer-Aided Communication (contd)

Intranet

A private organization-wide information network.

Extranet

An information network connecting employees with external suppliers, customers, and strategic partners.

Videoconferencing

An extension of an intranet or extranet that permits faceto-face virtual meetings via video links.

Emoticons: Showing Emotion in E-Mail

Electronic mail neednt be emotion free. Over the years, a set of symbols

(emoticons) has evolved that e-mail users have developed for expressing emotions. For instance, the use of all caps (i.e., THIS PROJECT NEEDS YOUR IMMEDIATE ATTENTION!) is the e-mail equivalent of shouting. The following highlights some emoticons:

E-Mail Dos and Donts

E-mail allows telecommuting employees to

work from home and keep in contact. The use of e-mail is growing rapidly and email etiquette is expected:

Typing messages in all CAPITALS is seen as screaming at the receiver. Punctuate your messages for easy reading and dont ramble on. Pay attention to spelling and treat the message like a written letter.

Discussion
Internet Gripe Sites : A Challenge For

Management (read the handout given) What is your opinion? What is the advantages and disadvantages?

Barriers to Effective Communication

Filtering A senders manipulation of information so that it will be seen more favorably by the receiver Selective Perception People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes Information Overload A condition in which information inflow exceeds an individuals processing capacity

Barriers to Effective Communication (contd)

Emotions How a receiver feels at the time a message is received will influence how the message is interpreted

Language
Words have different meanings to different people Communication Apprehension Undue tension and anxiety about oral communication, written communication, or both

Discussion
List down others organization related barriers

to effective communication

Barriers to Effective Communication Organization Point of View

Physical distractions

Semantic problems poor choices of words

Mixed Messahe Cultural differences Organizational structures Absence of feedback Status Effect

Communication Differences Between Men and Women

Men talk to:

Women talk to:

Emphasise status, power, and independence

Complain that women talk on and on Offer solutions To boast about their accomplishments

Establish connection and intimacy

Criticise men for not listening

Speak of problems to promote closeness

Express regret and restore balance to a conversation

Critically discuss above view from Robbins (2005)

Politically Correct Communication

Certain words stereotype, intimidate, and insult individuals. In an increasingly diverse workforce, we must be sensitive to

how words might offend others.

Removed: handicapped, blind, and elderly Replaced with: physically challenged, visually impaired, and senior.

How much political correctness is appropriate? Removed: death, garbage, and women. Replaced with: negative patient outcome, postconsumer waste materials, and people of gender.

Cross-Cultural Communication
Cultural Barriers

Cultural Guide

Semantics (meanings in the language)

Word connotations (with different meanings) Tone differences Differences among perceptions

Assume differences until similarity is proven

Emphasise description rather than interpretation or evaluation Practise empathy

Treat your interpretations as a working hypothesis

Hand Gestures Mean Different Things in Different Countries

Hand Gestures Mean Different Things in Different Countries

Communication Barriers and Cultural Context

High-Context Cultures Cultures that rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues to communication

Low-Context Cultures
Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication

Highversus LowContext Cultures

Explicit and Implicit Communication

High-context/implicit communication cultures Japanese Arabs Latin Americans Italians English French North Americans Scandinavians Germans Low-context/explicit communication cultures

Swiss Germans
Explicit/Implicit Communication: An International Comparison

Organisational Communication: The Grapevine

Grapevine Characteristics

an informal network that is active in almost every organization Informal, not controlled by management Perceived by most employees as being more believable and reliable than formal communications Largely used to serve the self-interests of those who use it Results from:

Desire for information about important situations Ambiguous conditions Conditions that cause anxiety

Discussion Gossip, Rumors and Unofficial news play an

important role in workplace communication. If youre the management, how do you handle gossip and rumors?

Suggestions for Reducing the Negative Impact of Rumors

1. Announce timetables for making important decisions
2. Explain decisions and behaviors that may appear inconsistent or secretive 3. Emphasise the downside, as well as the upside, of current decisions and future plans 4. Openly discuss worst-case possibilities it is almost never as anxiety-provoking as the unspoken fantasy
Source: Adapted from L. Hirschhorn, Managing Rumors, in L. Hirschhorn (ed.), Cutting Back (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1983), pp. 5456. With permission.

How To Overcome The Barriers of Communication

1) 2) 3) 4)

Improving Listening Skills Be more openminded Develop empathy Listen actively Observe Nonverbal Cues

Barriers Interpersonal Selective perception Frame of reference Emotion Language Nonverbal cues
-

1) 2) 3)

Improving Sending Skills Simplify language Organize writing Understand audience

Organizational Hierarchical barriers resulting from formal structure Functional barriers resulting from differences between departments Cultural Language High/Low context culture Stereotyping Ethnocentrism Cultural distance

Cultural Sensitivity 1) Know the culture in

communication 2) Understand nonverbal signals in different countries 3) Understand their language

Achieving Communication Effectiveness

Improve feedback systems

Two basic types of feedback systems between home office and affiliates

Personal (e.g., face-to-face meetings, telephone conversations and personalized e-mail) Impersonal (e.g., reports, budgets, and plans)

Language training Cultural training Flexibility and cooperation

Discussion - Counterpoint
Open Book Management believed by many

organizations in improving communication among employees. What is your opinion in implementing this in your organization?