Chapter 8

Computer Networks

Shahija P V
HSST Computer Application
Anjarakkandi HSS,Kannur
Computer Network
Computer Network is a group of computers and other computing
hardware devices connected to each other electronically through
communication medium.
Need/Use of computer networks
Data communication is possible
Computer network helps user to communicate with any other user of the network
through its services like e-mail chatting etc.

Resource Sharing
The sharing of available hardware and software resources ( like programs,
printers , hard disk etc..) in a computer network is called resource sharing.

Reliability
A file can have copies in different computers. So breaking down of one
system does not cause data loss.

Scalability
Computing and storage capacity can be increased or decreased easily by
adding/removing computer or storage devises to the network.

Price –Performance ratio

The cost of purchasing licensed software for each computer can be reduced
by purchasing networked version of such software without any compromises in
performance.
Key terms related to computer network

• Bandwidth:

The maximum amount of data that can be transmitted by the

medium measured in Hertz.

• Noise:

It is the unwanted electrical or electromagnetic interferences that

adversely affect the transmitted data signals.

• Node:

Any device (computer, scanner, printer, etc.) which is directly

connected to a computer network is called a node..
Data communication system
Data communication is the exchange of digital data
between any two devices through a transmission medium.
 5 basic elements of a data communication
system
Message :
It is the information to be communicated. Major forms of information
include text, picture, audio, video, etc.
Sender :
The computer or device that is used for sending messages is called the
sender, source or transmitter.
Receiver :
The computer or device that receives the messages is called the receiver.
Medium :
It is the physical path through which a message travels from the sender to
the receiver. It refers to the way in which nodes are connected.
Protocol :
The rules under which message transmission takes place between the
sender and the receiver is called a protocol.
 Communication
Media

Wired / Guided Wireless/Unguided

Twisted Coaxial Optical Radio Micro Infrared

Pair Cable Fibers Waves Wave Waves
Communication medium
The medium for data transmission over a computer network is called
communication channel or communication medium.There are two types of
communication medium – guided (wired) & unguided (wireless)
1.Guided Medium : Here data is transmitted through some physical wires
or cables.
 Twisted Pair cables
 Coaxial Cables
 Optical Fibre

2.Unguided medium (Wireless)

• Radiowaves
• Microwaves
• Infrared waves
 Twisted Pair cables
This is the most widely used media in small computer
networks. It consists of four twisted pairs which are enclosed in
an outer shield. Twisted pair cables are of two types: (i)
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cables and (ii) Shielded
Twisted Pair (STP) cables.

Characteristics of UTP cable

• Low cost cable available for setting
up small networks.
• Thin and flexible cable.
• Ease of installation.
• Carries data upto a length of 100 m
at a stretch.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable
It is the same cable as the UTP, but with each pair shielded
individually. An outer shield then covers all the pairs like in UTP.

Characteristics of STP cable

• Shielding in STP offers better immunity against noise.
• It is more expensive than UTP cable.
• Compared to UTP cable, STP cable is difficult to install
 Coaxial cable
A coaxial cable consists of an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular
insulating layer which is further covered by a tubular conducting shield. It
has an outer insulation cable too.

Characteristics of coaxial cable

• Carries data to longer distances (185 m - 500 m) at a stretch.
• Less electromagnetic interference due to the outer shield.
• Less flexible than twisted pair.
• Difficult to install than twisted pair cable.
• Thicker than twisted pair.
• High bandwidth.
Optical fibre cable
Optical fibres are long thin glass fibres through which data is transmitted
as light signals. Data travels as fast as light and can be transmitted to far
off distances.
Optical fibre has the following parts:
• Core - the thin glass rod at the centre through which the light travels.
• Cladding - the outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the
light back into the core.
• Coating - the plastic coating that protects the cable from damage and
moisture.
Radio waves
Radio waves have a frequency range of 3 KHz to 3 GHz. Radio waves
can be used for short and long distance communication
Characteristics of radio wave transmission
• Waves are transmitted in all directions, therefore transmitting and receiving
antennas need not be aligned face to face.
• Relatively inexpensive than wired media.
• Can penetrate through most objects.
• Transmission can be affected by motors or other electrical equipment.
• Less secure mode of transmission.
• Permissions from authorities concerned are required for the use of radio wave
transmission
Micro waves
Micro waves have a frequency range of 300 MHz (0.3 GHz) to 300 GHz.
Microwaves travel in straight lines and cannot penetrate any solid object

Characteristics of micro wave transmission

• Relatively inexpensive than wired media.
• Offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.
• The transmission is in straight lines.The transmitting and receiving
antennas need to be properly aligned (line of sight transmission).
Infrared waves
Infrared waves have a frequency range of 300 GHz to 400 THz. These waves
are used for short range communication (approx. 5 m)
Characteristics of infrared wave transmission

• A line of sight transmission; hence information passed to one device is

not leaked.
• Only two devices can communicate at a time.
• The waves cannot cross solid objects.
• The longer the distance the weaker the performance.
 Wireless communication technologies using radio
waves
a. Bluetooth
Bluetooth technology uses radio waves in the frequency range of 2.402 GHz
to 2.480 GHz. This technology is used for short range communication
(approx. 10 m) in a variety of devices for wireless communication

Characteristics of bluetooth transmission

• Line of sight between communicating devices is not required.
• Bluetooth can connect upto eight devices simultaneously.
• Slow data transfer rate (upto 1 Mbps).
b.Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi network makes use of radio waves to transmit information across a network
like cell phones, televisions and radios. The radio waves used in Wi-Fi ranges from
a frequency of 2.4 GHz to 5 GHz
Characteristics of Wi-Fi transmission
• Line of sight between communicating devices is not required
• Data transmission speed is up to 54 Mbps
• Wi-Fi can connect more number of devices simultaneously
• Used for communication upto 375 ft (114 m)
c. Wi-MAX
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (Wi-MAX) combines the
benefits of broadband and wireless. Wi-MAX has a the frequency range of 2
GHz to 11 GHz.

Characteristics of Wi-MAX transmission

•Hundreds of users can connect to a single
station.
•Provides higher speed connection upto 70
Mbps over an area of 45 Kilometres.
•Line of sight between communicating
devices is not required.
•Weather conditions like rain, storm etc. could
interrupt the signal.
•Very high power consumption.
•High costs of installation and operation.
Satellite link
Long distance wireless communication systems use satellite links for
transmitting signals.

Characteristics of transmission using

satellite link
• Satellites cover a large area of the
earth.
• This system is expensive.
• Requires legal permission and
authorisation.
Data communication devices

Provides interface between computer and communication channel

Used to transmit, receive, amplify and route data signals

1. Network Interface Card (NIC)


Used to connect computer to a network.

Provides an interface between computer and network.

Prepare, send, receive and control data on the network.

NIC Card Wireless NIC Card

2. HUB

Used in a wired network to connect computers or devices of the same
network. Hub is Simple, Passive and inexpensive.

Computers/devices are connected to ports of the hub using Ethernet cable.

When a computer sends data packets to hub, the hub transmits it all other
connected devices.

Disadvantage : increases network traffic and reduces effective bandwidth.

HUB
3. Switch


An intelligent device that connects several computers to form a network.

Determins the destination and redirect the data only to the intended node
generating less network traffic.

Stores the addresses of all the devices connected to it in a table.

4. Repeater

Regenerates incoming electrical, wireless or optical
signals through a communication medium.

Receives incoming data signals, amplifies the
signals to their original strength and retransmits
them to the destination.
5. Bridge

A bridge is a device used to segmentise a network ie a network can be
split into different segments and can be interconnected using a bridge.

This reduces the amount of traffic on a network.

Identifies the destination of incoming signals and broadcast to next
segment if the destination address is in the that segment.
6. Router

A router is a device that can interconnect two networks of the same
type using the same protocol.

It can find the optimal path for data packets to travel and reduce the
amount of traffic on a network.

Works similar to bridge but is more intelligent.
Router
7. Gateway

A gateway is a device that can interconnect two different networks
having different protocols.

It can translate one protocol to another protocol.

It is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network.

Gateway can understand the address structure used in different
networks and seamlessly translate the data packet
between these networks.
Data terminal equipments
A data terminal equipment (DTE) is a device that controls data flowing
to or from a computer. It is connected to the transmission medium at the
end of a telecommunication link.
1.Modem(Modulator Demodulator)

A modem is an electronic device used for communication between
computers through telephone lines.

It converts digital signals received from a computer to analog signals for
telephone lines and vice versa.
2.Multiplexer/Demultiplexer

Sending multiple signals through a physical medium simultaneously and
seperating them at th receiving end.

Multiplexing divides the medium into different channels.

Multiplexer combines the signals from different sources and sends them
through different channels.

Demultiplexer seperates the signals and sends them to desired destination.
Network Topologies
The way in which the nodes are physically interconnected to form a network
is called a Topology.
1.Bus topology : all the nodes are connected to a main cable called
bus.

Easy to install.

Requires less cable length and hence it is cost effective.

Failure of a node does not affect the network.

Failure of cable (bus) or terminator leads to a break down of the entire
network.

Fault diagnosis is difficult.

Only one node can transmit data at a time.
2 Star topology
•In star topology each node is directly connected to a hub/switch.
• More efficient compared to bus topology.
• Easy to install.
• Easy to diagnose faults.
• Easy to expand depending on the specifications of central hub/switch.
• Failure of hub/switch leads to failure of entire network.
• Requires more cable length compared to bus topology.
3.Ring topology
•All nodes are connected using a cable that loops in a ring or circle.
•Terminators are not necessary in a ring topology.
•Data travels only in one direction in a ring.
•No Signal amplification required as each node amplifies the signal.
•Requires less cable length and hence is cost effective.
•If one node fails, entire network will fail.
•Addition of nodes to the network is difficult.
4 Mesh topology
• Every node is connected to other nodes. There will be more than one
path between two nodes. If one path fails, the data will take another
path and reach the destination.
• Network will not fail even if one path between the nodes fails.
• Expensive because of the extra cables needed.
• Very complex and difficult to manage.
Types of networks
A computer network may span any amount of geographical area.
Based on area covered network types are divided into:
• PAN - Personal Area Network
• LAN - Local Area Network
• MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
• WAN -Wide Area Network

1.Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is a network of communicating devices
(computer, mobile, tablet, printer, etc.)
individually. It can cover an area of a radius
with few meters.
2 Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN is a network of computing and
communicating devices in a room, building, or
campus. It can cover an area of radius with a few
meters to a few .

3.Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)

MAN is a network of computing and
communicating devices within a city. It can cover
an area of a few Kilometers to a few hundred
Kilometers radius. MAN is usually
formed by interconnecting a number of LANs and
individual computers.
4 Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN is a network of computing and
communicating devices crossing the limits of a city,
country or continent. It can cover an area of over
hundreds of Kilometers .The best known example
of a WAN is the Internet.
Logical classification of networks
This classification is based on the role of computers in the network. They
are of two types
1.Peer-to-Peer
A peer-to-peer network has no dedicated servers. In this network all the
computers are considered equal. Any computer can act as a client or as a
server at any instance.

2 Client-Server
The client-server architecture consists of high-end
computer (server)serving lower configuration
machines called clients. A server provides clients
with specific services (responses) include sharing of
data, software and hardware resources.
Classifications for servers
a)File server - A computer that stores and manages files for
multiple users on a network.

b)Web server - A computer dedicated to responding to requests

for web pages.

c)Print server - Redirects print jobs from clients to specific

printers.

d)Database server - Allows authorised clients to view, modify

and/or delete data in a common database.
Identification of computers over a network

1 Media Access Control (MAC) address

A Media Access Control (MAC) address is a universally unique address (12 digit
Hexa decimal number) (or 48 bit Binary) numbers. MAC address of an NIC(Network
Interface Card) is permanent and never changes. MAC addresses are 12-digit hexadecimal.
MM : MM : MM : SS : SS : SS or MM – MM – MM – SS – SS – SS

(ID number of the adapter manufacturer): (SerialNumber of the adapter)

2 Internet Protocol (IP) Address
An IP address is a unique 4 part numeric address assigned to each node
on a network, for their unique identification. IP address is assigned to each
machine by the network administrator or the Internet Service Provider. An IP
address is a group of four bytes (or 32 bits) each of which can be a number from
0 to 255.

There are two versions of IP addresses:version 4 (IPv4) and version 6 (IPv6).

IPv4 uses 32 bits and IPv6 uses 128 bits for an IP address.
Network protocols
A network protocol is the special set of rules in a network when devices in the network
exchange data with each other.
1. TCP/IP- Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol :
When data is to be sent from one computer to another over Internet, it is first
broken into smaller packets by TCP and then sent. If errors are found, TCP submits
requests for retransmission; else packets are assembled into the original message
according to the rules specified in TCP protocol.

HTTP, FTP and DNS are three sub protocols of TCP/IP protocol suite.
HTTP
HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. The HTTP client (browser) sends a
HTTP request to the HTTP server (web server) and server responds with a HTTP
response. This pair of request and response is called an HTTP session

The two important characteristics of HTTP are:

HTTP is transmission medium independent.
HTTP is stateless.

HTTP session
FTP
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It uses TCP and IP to
perform uploading and downloading. FTP uses client-server architecture
in servers with security features, username and password protection for
file transfer. Eg :Filezilla, Cute FTP

DNS
DNS stands for Domain Name System. DNS returns the IP address of the
domain name, that we type in our web browser’s address bar.If one DNS
server does not know how to translate a particular domain name, it asks
another one, and so on, until the correct IP address is returned.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator.

URL string can be divided into three parts:

a) Network protocol (also called the scheme)

b)Domain name (Host name or address)
c)File name

a. Protocol
The protocol enables the browser to know what protocol is used to
access the information specified in the domain.
b. Domain name
Domain name is the name assigned to a server through the Domain Name
System (DNS). Domain names are used in URLs to identify the particular
web server.

Eg: dhsekerala.gov.in, keralaresults.nic.in, g oogle.com, gmail.com, etc.

A domain name usually has more than one part: top level domain name or
primary domain name and sub-domain name(s).
c. File name : It is the file to be opened.
Examples of generic and country specific domain names