COMPUTER ORGANISATION

(TỔ CHỨC MÁY TÍNH)

Karnaugh-Maps
© IT - TDT Computer Organisation 2

Acknowledgement
• The contents of these slides have origin from School of
Computing, National University of Singapore.
• We greatly appreciate support from Mr. Aaron Tan Tuck
Choy for kindly sharing these materials.
© IT - TDT Computer Organisation 3

Policies for students

• These contents are only used for students PERSONALLY.
• Students are NOT allowed to modify or deliver these
contents to anywhere or anyone for any purpose.
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 4

WHERE ARE WE NOW?

• Number systems and codes Preparation: 2 weeks
• Boolean algebra
• Logic gates and circuits
• Simplification Logic Design: 3 weeks
• Combinational circuits
• Sequential circuits
• Performance
• Assembly language
• The processor: Datapath and control Computer
• Pipelining organisation
• Memory hierarchy: Cache
• Input/output
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 5

KARNAUGH MAPS
• Function Simplification
• Algebraic Simplification
• Half Adder
• Introduction to K-maps
• How to use K-maps
• Converting to Minterms Form
• Prime Implicants and Essential Prime Implicants
• Example on Finding Minimal SOP Expression
• Finding POS Expression
• Don’t-care Conditions
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 6

FUNCTION SIMPLIFICATION
• Why simplify?
• Simpler expression uses fewer logic gates.
• Thus cheaper, uses less power, (sometimes) faster.

• Techniques
• Algebraic
• Using theorems
• Open-ended; requires skills
• Karnaugh Maps
• Easy to use
• Limited to no more than 6 variables
• Quine-McCluskey (non-examinable)
• Suitable for automation
• Can handle many variables (but computationally intensive)
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 7

ALGEBRAIC SIMPLIFICATION (1/4)

• Aims to minimise
• Number of literals, and
• Number of terms

• But sometimes conflicting, so let’s aim at reducing the

number of literals for the examples in the next few slides.
• Difficult – needs good algebraic manipulation skills.
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 8

ALGEBRAIC SIMPLIFICATION (2/4)

• Example 1: Simplify (x+y)(x+y')(x'+z)
(x+y)(x+y')(x'+z)
= (xx + xy' + xy + yy')  (x'+z) (distributivity)
= (x + x(y'+y) + 0)  (x'+z) (idemp, assoc.,
complement)
= (x + x1)  (x'+z) (complement, identity)
= (x + x)  (x'+z) (identity)
= x  (x'+z) (idempotency)
= xx' + xz (distributivity)
= 0 + xz (complement)
= xz (identity)
• Number of literals reduced from 6 to 2.
 CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 9

ALGEBRAIC SIMPLIFICATION (3/4)

• Example 2: Find simplified SOP and POS expressions of
F(x,y,z) = x'y(z+y'x) + y'z
x'y(z+y'x) + y'z
=

• Simplified SOP:

• Simplified POS:


 CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 10

ALGEBRAIC SIMPLIFICATION (4/4)

• Example 3: Find minimal SOP expression of
F(a,b,c,d) = abc + abd + a'bc' + cd + bd'
abc + abd + a'bc' + cd + bd'
=


CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 11

HALF ADDER (1/2)

• Half adder is a circuit that adds 2 single bits (X, Y) to
produce a result of 2 bits (C, S).
• The black-box representation and truth table for half
adder are shown below.
Inputs Outputs
X Y C S
X Half S
0 0 0 0
adder (X+Y)
Y C 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 12

HALF ADDER (2/2) X Y C S

0 0 0 0
• In canonical form (sum-of-minterms): 0 1 0 1
• C = X∙Y 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
• S = X'∙Y + X∙Y'

• Output S can be simplified further (though no longer in

SOP form):
• S = X'∙Y + X∙Y' = X  Y
X
• Implementation of a half adder S
Y

C
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 13

INTRODUCTION TO K-MAPS
• Systematic method to obtain simplified (minimal) sum-of-
products (SOP) expressions.
• Objective: Fewest possible product terms and literals.
• Diagrammatic technique based on a special form of Venn
diagram.
• Advantage: Easy to use.
• Disadvantage: Limited to 5 or 6 variables.
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 14

VENN DIAGRAM a'b'

• Example: 2 variables a and b
represented by 2 circular regions.
ab' ab a'b
There are 4 minterms, each a b
occupying their respective space.
 A set of minterms represents a certain Boolean function.
Examples:
{ a∙b, a∙b' }  a∙b + a∙b' = a∙(b+b') = a
{ a'∙b, a∙b }  a'∙b + a∙b = (a'+a)∙b = b
{ a∙b }  a∙b
{ a∙b, a∙b', a'∙b }  a∙b + a∙b' + a'∙b = a + b
{} 0
{ a'∙b', a∙b, a∙b', a'∙b }  1
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 15

2-VARIABLE K-MAPS (1/4)

• Karnaugh-map (K-map) is an abstract form of Venn
diagram, organised as a matrix of squares, where
• Each square represents a minterm
• Two adjacent squares represent minterms that differ by exactly one
literal
• Let the 2 variables be a and b. The K-map can be drawn
as…
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 16

2-VARIABLE K-MAPS (2/4)

• Alternative layouts of a 2-variable (a, b) K-map:

Alternative 1: Alternative 2:
b b a a
OR OR
a'b' a'b m0 m1 a'b' ab' m0 m2

a a m3 b b m1 m3
ab' ab m2 a'b ab

Alternative 3:
a a
OR
b ab a'b b m3 m1 and others…
ab' a'b' m2 m0
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 17

2-VARIABLE K-MAPS (3/4)

• Alternative labelling of a 2-variable (a, b) K-map:

b b
a 0 1
0
equivalent to:
a
1

a a
b 1 0

equivalent to: 0
b
1
 CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 18

2-VARIABLE K-MAPS (4/4)

• The K-map for a function is filled by putting
• A ‘1’ in the square the corresponds to a minterm of the function
• A ‘0’ otherwise

• Example: Half adder.

b b

a a

C = a∙b S = a∙b' + a'∙b


CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 19

3-VARIABLE K-MAPS (1/2)

• As there are 8 minterms for 3 variables, so there are 8
squares in a 3-variable K-map.
• Example: Let the variables be a, b, c.
b b
bc bc
a a
00 01 11 10 00 01 11 10
0 a'b'c' a'b'c a'bc a'bc' 0 m0 m1 m3 m2
OR
a ab'c' ab'c abc abc' a m4 m5 m7 m6
1 1

c c

Above arrangement ensures that minterms Note Gray code sequence

of adjacent cells differ by only ONE literal.
(Other arrangements which satisfy this
criterion may also be used.)
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 20

3-VARIABLE K-MAPS (2/2)

• There is wrap-around in the K-map:
• a'∙b'∙c' (m0) is adjacent to a'∙b∙c' (m2)
• a∙b'∙c' (m4) is adjacent to a∙b∙c' (m6)

bc
a
00 01 11 10
0 m0 m1 m3 m2

1 m4 m5 m7 m6

Each cell in a 3-variable K-map has 3 adjacent neighbours.

In general, each cell in an n-variable K-map has n adjacent
neighbours. For example, m0 has 3 adjacent neighbours:
m1, m2 and m4.
 CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 21

QUICK REVIEW QUESTIONS (1)

• DLD page 106, questions 5-1 to 5-2.
5-1. The K-map of a 3-variable function F is shown
below. What is the sum-of-minterms expression of F?
b
bc
a
00 01 11 10
0 1 0 0 1

a 0 1 0 0
1

c
5-2. Draw the K-map for this function A:
A(x, y, z) = x∙y + y∙z' + x'∙y'∙z


CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 22

4-VARIABLE K-MAPS (1/2)

• There are 16 square cells in a 4-variable K-map.
• Example: Let the variables be w, x, y, z.

y
yz
wx 00 01 11 10
00 m0 m1 m3 m2

m4 m5 m7 m6
01
x
m12 m13 m15 m14
11
w
m8 m9 m11 m10
10
z
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 23

4-VARIABLE K-MAPS (2/2)

• There are 2 wrap-arounds.
• Every cell has 4 neighbours.
• Example: The cell corresponding to minterm m0 has neighbours
m1, m2, m4 and m8.

yz y
wx
m0 m1 m3 m2

m4 m5 m7 m6
x
m12 m13 m15 m14
w
m8 m9 m11 m10

z
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 24

5-VARIABLE K-MAPS (1/2)

• K-maps of more than 4 variables are more difficult to use
because the geometry (hypercube configurations) for
combining adjacent squares becomes more involved.
• For 5 variables, e.g. v, w, x, y, z, we need 25 = 32 squares.
• Each square has 5 neighbours.
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 25

5-VARIABLE K-MAPS (2/2)

• Organised as two 4-variable K-maps. One for v' and the
other for v.
v' v
y y
yz yz
wx 00 01 11 10 wx 00 01 11 10
00 m0 m1 m3 m2 00 m16 m17 m19 m18

m4 m5 m7 m6 m20 m21 m23 m22

01 01
x x
m12 m13 m15 m14 m28 m29 m31 m30
11 11
w w
m8 m9 m11 m10 m24 m25 m27 m26
10 10
z z

Corresponding squares of each map are adjacent.

Can visualise this as one 4-variable K-map being on TOP of
the other 4-variable K-map.
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 26

LARGER K-MAPS (1/2)

• 6-variable K-map is pushing the limit of human’s “pattern-
recognition” capability.
• K-maps larger than 6 variables are practically unheard of!
• Normally, a 6-variable K-map is organised as four 4-
variable K-maps, mirrored along two axes.
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 27

LARGER K-MAPS (2/2) b

ef a'∙b' a'∙b ef
cd 00 01 11 10 10 11 01 00 cd

00 m0 m1 m3 m2 m18 m19 m17 m16 00

m4 m5 m7 m6 m22 m23 m21 m20

m12 m13 m15 m14 m30 m31 m29 m28 01

01
m8 m9 m11 m10 m26 m27 m25 m24 11
11
10 10
10 m40 m41 m43 m42 m58 m59 m57 m56 10
m44 m45 m47 m46 m62 m63 m61 m60
a
m36 m37 m39 m38 m54 m55 m53 m52
11 11
m32 m33 m35 m34 m50 m51 m49 m48
01 01
cd cd
00 01 11 10 10 11 01 00 ef
00ef a∙b' a∙b 00

Try stretching your recognition capability by finding simplest sum-of-

products expression for S m(6,8,14,18,23,25,27,29,41,45,57,61).
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 28

HOW TO USE K-MAPS (1/7)

• Based on the Unifying Theorem (complement law):
A + A' = 1
• In a K-map, each cell containing a ‘1’ corresponds to a
minterm of a given function F.
• Each valid grouping of adjacent cells containing ‘1’ then
corresponds to a simpler product term of F.
• A group must have size in powers of two: 1, 2, 4, 8, …
• Grouping 2 adjacent cells eliminates 1 variable from the product
term; grouping 4 cells eliminates 2 variables; grouping 8 cells
eliminates 3 variables, and so on. In general, grouping 2 n cells
eliminates n variables.
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 29

HOW TO USE K-MAPS (2/7)

• Group as many cells as possible
• The larger the group, the fewer the number of literals in the
resulting product term.
• Select as few groups as possible to cover all the cells
(minterms) of the function
• The fewer the groups, the fewer is the number of product terms in
the simplified (minimal) SOP expression.
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 30

HOW TO USE K-MAPS (3/7)

• Example:
F (w,x,y,z) = w'∙x∙y'∙z' + w'∙x∙y'∙z + w∙x'∙y∙z'
+ w∙x'∙y∙z + w∙x∙y∙z' + w∙x∙y∙z
=  m(4, 5, 10, 11, 14, 15)
y
yz
wx 00 01 11 10
00

01 1 1
x (cells with ‘0’ are not
1 1
w
11 shown for clarity)
1 1
10
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 31

HOW TO USE K-MAPS (4/7)

• Each group of adjacent minterms corresponds to a
possible product term of the given function.
• Here, there are 2 groups of minterms, A and B:
A = w'.x.y'.z' + w'.x.y'.z = w'.x.y'.(z' + z) = w'.x.y'
B = w.x'.y.z' + w.x'.y.z + w.x.y.z' + w.x.y.z
y
= w.x'.y.(z' + z) + w.x.y.(z' + z) yz
= w.x'.y + w.x.y wx 00 01 11 10

= w.(x'+x).y 00
A
= w.y 01 1 1
x
11 1 1
w
10 1 1 B
z
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 32

HOW TO USE K-MAPS (5/7)

• Each product term that corresponds to a group, w'∙x∙y'
and w∙y, represents the sum of minterms in that group.
• Boolean expression is therefore the sum of product terms
(SOP) that represent all groups of the minterms of the
function:
F(w,x,y,z) = group A + group B = w'∙x∙y' + w∙y
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 33

HOW TO USE K-MAPS (6/7)

• The larger the group (the more minterms it contains), the
fewer is the number of literals in the associated product
term.
• Recall that a group must have size in powers of two.
• Example: For a 4-variable K-map with variables w, x, y, z
1 cell = 4 literals. Examples: w∙x∙y∙z, w'∙x∙y'∙z
2 cells = 3 literals. Examples: w∙x∙y, w∙y'∙z'
4 cells = 2 literals. Examples: w∙x, x'∙y
8 cells = 1 literal. Examples: w, y', z
16 cells = no literal (i.e. logical constant 1). Example: 1
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 34

HOW TO USE K-MAPS (7/7)

• Examples of valid and invalid groupings.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

P P P
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

O O
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 35

CONVERTING TO MINTERMS FORM (1/2)

• The K-map of a function can be easily filled in when the
function is given in sum-of-minterms form.
• What if it is not in sum-of-minterms form?
• Convert it into sum-of-products (SOP) form
• Expand the SOP expression into sum-of-minterms expression, or
fill in the K-map directly based on the SOP expression.
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 36

CONVERTING TO MINTERMS FORM (2/2)

• Example:
F(A,B,C,D) = A.(C+D)'.(B'+D') + C.(B+C'+A'.D)
= A.(C'.D').(B'+D') + B.C + C.C' + A'.C.D
= A.B'.C'.D' + A.C'.D' + B.C + A'.C.D
A
A.B'.C'.D' + A.C'.D' + B.C + A'.C.D AB
CD 00 01 11 10
= A.B'.C'.D' + A.C'.D'.(B+B') + B.C + A'.C.D
= A.B'.C'.D' + A.B.C'.D' + A.B'.C'.D' + B.C.(A+A') 00 1 1
+ A'.C.D 01
= A.B'.C'.D' + A.B.C'.D' + A.B.C + A'.B.C + D
11 1 1 1
A'.C.D
C
= A.B'.C'.D' + A.B.C'.D' + A.B.C.(D+D') + A'.B.C. 10 1 1
(D+D') + A'.C.D.(B+B')
B
= A.B'.C'.D' + A.B.C'.D' + A.B.C.D + A.B.C.D' +
A'.B.C.D + A'.B.C.D' + A'.B‘.C.D
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 37

PIs AND EPIs (1/3)

• To find the simplest (minimal) SOP expression from a K-
map, you need to obtain:
• Minimum number of literals per product term; and
• Minimum number of product terms.

• Achieved through K-map using

• Bigger groupings of minterms (prime implicants) where possible;
and
• No redundant groupings (look for essential prime implicants)

• Implicant: a product term that could be used to cover

minterms of the function.
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 38

PIs AND EPIs (2/3)

• Prime implicant (PI): a product term obtained by
combining the maximum possible number of minterms
from adjacent squares in the map. (That is, it is the
biggest grouping possible.)
• Always look for prime implicants in a K-map.

1 1 1 1 1 1

1
P
1 1 1 1 1
O
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 39

PIs AND EPIs (3/3)

• No redundant groups:

1 1 1 1

P
1 1 1 1

1 1
O 1 1

1 1 1 1

Essential prime implicants

 Essential prime implicant (EPI): a prime implicant that
includes at least one minterm that is not covered by any
other prime implicant.
 CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 40

QUICK REVIEW QUESTIONS (2)

• DLD page 106, question 5-3.
5-3. Identify the prime implicants and essential prime
implicants of the two K-maps below. How many PIs?
How many EPIs?
b A
AB
bc CD 00 01 11 10
a
00 01 11 10
00 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
01 1 1
a D
1 0 1 0 0
11 1 1 1
C
c 10 1 1 1

How many PIs? B

How many EPIs?


CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 41

EXAMPLE ON FINDING MINIMAL SOP

EXPRESSION (1/4)
• Algorithm
1. Circle all prime implicants on the K-map.
2. Identify and select all essential prime implicants for
the cover.
3. Select a minimum subset of the remaining prime
implicants to complete the cover, that is, to cover
those minterms not covered by the essential prime
implicants.
 CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 42

EXAMPLE ON FINDING MINIMAL SOP

EXPRESSION (2/4)
• Example #1:
F(A,B,C,D) = S m(2,3,4,5,7,8,10,13,15)
A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

00 1 1

01 1 1
D
11 1 1 1
C
10 1 1


 CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 43

EXAMPLE ON FINDING MINIMAL SOP

EXPRESSION (3/4) AB
A
AB
A
CD 00 01 11 10 CD 00 01 11 10
00 1 1
All PIs 00 1 1 Essential prime
01 1 1 D
01 1 1 implicants
C
11 1 1 1 D
10 1 1 11 1 1 1
C
B
10 1 1

B
A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

00 1 1 Answer
01 1 1
D
11 1 1 1
C
10 1 1


 CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 44

EXAMPLE ON FINDING MINIMAL SOP

EXPRESSION (4/4)
A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

00 1 1

01 1 1
D
11 1 1 1
C
10 1 1

F(A,B,C,D) =


 CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 45

QUICK REVIEW QUESTIONS (3)

• DLD pages 106-107, questions 5-4 to 5-7.
5-4. Find the minimal SOP expression for G(A,B,C,D).

A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

00 1

01 1 1 1
D
11 1 1 1
C
10 1


CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 46

FINDING POS EXPRESSION (1/2)

• Simplified POS expression can be obtained by grouping
the maxterms (i.e. 0s) of the given function.
• Example:
Given F = Sm(0,1,2,3,5,7,8,9,10,11), we first draw the K-map, then
group the maxterms together:

A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

00 1 0 0 1

01 1 1 0 1
D
11 1 1 0 1
C
10 1 0 0 1

B
 CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 47

FINDING POS EXPRESSION (2/2) A A

AB AB
CD 00 01 11 10 CD 00 01 11 10

K-map 00 1 0 0 1 00 0 1 1 0 K-map
of F 01 1 1 0 1 01 0 0 1 0 of F'
D D
11 1 1 0 1 11 0 0 1 0
C C
10 1 0 0 1 10 0 1 1 0

B B

• This gives the SOP of F' to be

F' = BD' + AB
• To get POS of F, we have
F =


CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 48

DON’T-CARE CONDITIONS (1/3) A B C D P

• In certain problems, some 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0
outputs are not specified or are 0 0 1 0 0
invalid. 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0
• Hence, these outputs can be
0 1 0 1 1
either ‘1’ or ‘0’. 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
• They are called don’t-care
1 0 0 0 0
conditions, denoted by X (or 1 0 0 1 1
sometimes, d). 1 0 1 0 X
1 0 1 1 X
• Example: An odd parity 1 1 0 0 X
generator for BCD code which 1 1 0 1 X

has 6 unused combinations. 1 1 1 0 X

1 1 1 1 X
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 49

DON’T-CARE CONDITIONS (2/3)

• Don’t-care conditions can be used to help simplify
Boolean expression further in K-maps.
• They could be chosen to be either ‘1’ or ‘0’, depending on
which choice results in a simpler expression.
• We usually use the notation Sd to denote the set of don’t-
care minterms.
• For example, the function P in the odd-parity generator for BCD
code can be written as:
P = Sm(0, 3, 5, 6, 9) + Sd(10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 50

DON’T-CARE CONDITIONS (3/3)

• Comparison C
CD
• Without don’t-cares: AB 00 01 11 10
00
1 1
P = A'B'C'D' + A'B'CD + A'BC'D 01
1 1
+ A'BCD' + AB'C'D 11
B

A
10 1

D
C
 With don’t-cares: CD
AB 00 01 11 10
00 1 1
P = A'B'C'D' + B'CD + BC'D
+ BCD' + AD 01
1 1
B
11 X X X X
A
10 1 X X

D
CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 51

MORE EXAMPLES (1/6)

• Example #2:
F(A,B,C,D) = ABC + B'CD' + AD + B'C'D'

A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

00 1 1
Fill in the 1’s.
01 1 1
D
11 1 1
C
10 1 1 1

B
 CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 52

MORE EXAMPLES (2/6)

• Example #2:
F(A,B,C,D) = ABC + B'CD' + AD + B'C'D'
A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

00 1 1
Find all PIs:
01 1 1
D
11 1 1
C
10 1 1 1

So the answer is: F(A,B,C,D) =


CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 53

MORE EXAMPLES (3/6)

• Example #3 (with don’t-cares):
F(A,B,C,D) = Sm(2,8,10,15) + Sd(0,1,3,7)

A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10

00 X 1
Fill in the 1’s and X’s.
01 X
D
11 X X 1
C
10 1 1

B
 CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 54

MORE EXAMPLES (4/6)

• Example #3 (with don’t-cares):
F(A,B,C,D) = Sm(2,8,10,15) + Sd(0,1,3,7)

A
AB
CD 00 01 11 10 Do we need to have an
00 X 1 additional term A'B' to
01 X cover the 2 remaining X’s?
D
11 X X 1
C
10 1 1

Answer: F(A,B,C,D) =


 CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 55

MORE EXAMPLES (5/6)

• Find the simplest POS expression for example #2:
F(A,B,C,D) = ABC + B'CD' + AD + B'C'D'
• Draw the K-map of the complement of F, that is, F'.

CD
AB
00 01 11 10
From K-map,
00 1 1 F' =
01 1 1 Using DeMorgan’s theorem,
D
11 1 1 F=
C
10 1


 CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 56

MORE EXAMPLES (6/6)

• Find the simplest POS expression for example #3:
F(A,B,C,D) = Sm(2,8,10,15) + Sd(0,1,3,7)
• Draw the K-map of the complement of F, that is, F'.
F'(A,B,C,D) = Sm(4,5,6,9,11,12,13,14) +
Sd(0,1,3,7)
A
AB From K-map,
CD 00 01 11 10
F'=
00 X 1 1

01 X 1 1 1
Using DeMorgan’s theorem,
D
11 X X 1 F=
C
10 1 1


CS2100 Karnaugh Maps 57

READING ASSIGNMENT
• Alternative Solutions
• Read up DLD section 5.8, pg 101.
• Quine-McCluskey
• Not included in syllabus, but helps in further
understanding.
• Read up DLD section 5.10, pg 103 – 105.
© IT - TDT Computer Organisation 58

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