PRESENTED BY PROF. V. G.

PATEL
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 1
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 2
 The main components of
power system are

Step up Transmission
Generator
Transformer Line

Step down
Load
Transformer

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 3

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 4
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 5
 Synchronous Machines
Synchronous generators or alternators are used to
convert mechanical power derived from steam, gas,
or hydraulic-turbine to ac electric power
Synchronous generators are the primary source of
electrical energy we consume today
Large ac power networks rely almost exclusively on
synchronous generators
Synchronous motors are built in large units compare
to induction motors (Induction motors are cheaper for
smaller ratings) and used for constant speed
industrial drives

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 6

 THREE PHASE
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 7

What is meant by synchronous
machine?
A machine that operates at constant
speed and frequency with respect to
time is called the synchronous machine.
N=120f/P
Where N=speed of the machine in rev/min
F=frequency in Hz
P=number of poles

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 8

Principle of synchronous machine
Based on the principle of Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction.
Generally the armature winding are
located on the stator and field winding
on the rotor.
The field winding is excited by a direct
current.

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 9

 SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINE CONSTRUCTION

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 10

Physical Description of a Synchronous Machine
Consists of two sets of windings:
 3 phase armature winding on the stator distributed with centres 120°
apart in space
 field winding on the rotor supplied by DC
Two basic rotor structures used:
 salient or projecting pole structure for hydraulic units (low speed)
 round rotor structure for thermal units (high speed)
Salient poles have concentrated field windings; usually also carry damper
windings on the pole face.
Round rotors have solid steel rotors with distributed windings
Nearly sinusoidal space distribution of flux wave shape obtained by:
 distributing stator windings and field windings in many slots (round
rotor);
 shaping pole faces (salient pole)
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 11
Synchronous Generator Construction
SYN. GEN. USED to CONVERT MECHANICAL ENERGY TO
AC ELECTRIC ENERGY: GENERATORS IN POWER PLANTS
GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION
- in synchronous generator, rotor winding energized by
dc source to develop rotor magnetic field
- rotor is turned by a prime mover, producing a rotating
magnetic field which induce 3 phase voltages in stator
windings
In general rotor carry the “field windings”, while
“armature windings” (or “stator windings”) carry
the main voltages of machine
therefore:
-rotor windings ≡ field windings
-stator windings ≡ armature windings

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 12

Synchronous Generator Construction
Rotor experience varying magnetic fields,
therefore is constructed of thin laminations to
reduce eddy current losses
To supply the rotor winding while it is rotating,
special arrangement employed to connect its
terminal to dc supply
1. supply dc power from an external dc source
to rotor by means of slip rings
2. supply dc power from a special dc power
source mounted on shaft of rotor

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 13

Synchronous Generator Construction
 SLIP RINGS: are metal rings encircling shaft
and are insulated from it
- one end of rotor winding is connected to each
of the 2 slip rings
- and a stationary brush mounted on the
machine casing ride on each slip ring
 BRUSH: a block of graphite like carbon
compound that conducts and has low friction
 same dc voltage is applied to field winding
during rotation

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 14

Synchronous Generator Construction

Slip rings

Brush

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 15

Synchronous Generator Construction
Problems associated with slip rings and brushes:
1- increase the required maintenance (brushes
should be examined for wear regularly)
2- brush voltage drop results in significant
power losses if field current is high
Despite of above problems, SLIP RINGS &
BRUSHES used for smaller synchronous machines
since is cost-effective

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 16

Synchronous Generator Construction
on larger generator & motors, brushless
exciters are used
Brushless Exciter: is a smaller ac generator with its
field circuit mounted on stator & its armature circuit
mounted on rotor shaft
3 phase output of exciter generator rectified by a 3
phase rectifier mounted on shaft
By controlling small dc field current of exciter
generator, it is possible to fed (and also adjust) field
current of main machine without slip rings and
brushes
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 17
Synchronous Generator Construction
SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF A BRUSHLESS
EXCITER
A brushless exciter:
a low 3-phase
current is rectified
and used to supply
the field circuit of
the exciter (located
on the stator). The
output of the
exciter’s armature
circuit (on the rotor)
is rectified and used
as the field current
of the main
machine.

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 18

Synchronous Generator Construction
Brushless exciter including a pilot exciter
To make the
excitation of a
generator completely
independent of any
external power
source, a small pilot
exciter is often added
to the circuit. The pilot
exciter is an AC
generator with a
permanent magnet
mounted on the rotor
shaft and a 3-phase
winding on the stator
producing the power
for the field circuit of
the exciter.

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 19

Synchronous Generator Construction
a small pilot exciter often included in system to
have the excitation of generator independent of
any external power sources
A pilot exciter is a small ac generator with
permanent magnets mounted on rotor shaft & a 3
phase winding on stator
It produces power for field circuit of exciter, which
in turn controls the field circuit of main machine
With pilot exciter on shaft of generator, no external
electric power is required to run generator
Many Syn. Gen.s with brushless exciters also
have slip rings and brushes, as an auxiliary source
of dc field in emergencies

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 20

Synchronous Generator Construction
A rotor of large
synchronous
machine with a
brushless exciter
mounted on the
same shaft.
Many synchronous
generators having
brushless exciters
also include slip
rings and brushes
to provide
emergency source
of the field DC
current.
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 21
 Stator Construction

• Stator is identical
to the induction
motor
• Laminated low
silicon steel rings
joined together
• Example of 36 slot
stator with 3 coil
conductors per slot,
12 slots per phase

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 22

 Stator Construction
Stator frame
• Stator is identical to the
induction motor
Stator slots
• Laminated low silicon with
steel rings joined together insulator

• Slots insulated with Mylar

• Example of 36 slot stator

with 3 coil conductors per
slot, 12 slots per phase

Slot insulator inserted by hand -

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 23

 Stator Construction
Stator frame
• Stator is identical to the
induction motor
• Laminated low silicon Stator slots
steel rings joined together with
insulator
• Slots insulated with Mylar
Coil
• Example of 36 slot stator
with 3 coil conductors per
slot, 12 slots per phase

• Slot insulator inserted by

hand
• Coils inserted by hand

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 24

 Stator Construction
• Coils can be placed in single or double layers

Stator slot

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 25

 Stator Construction
Single layer
Coil

1 coil arm
per slot

Stator Slots

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 26

 Stator Construction
Double layer
Stator
Slots

Coil

2 coil arms in
each slot

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 27

 Stator Construction
Stators can be very large

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 28

 Rotor Construction

Two types of rotor

• Salient Pole

• Cylindrical

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 29

 Rotor Construction
Salient Pole
Difference between pole face
curvature and stator creates
non-linear variation in flux
across pole face

Non-linear variation in flux

across pole face produces
sinusoidal change in the
induced EMF
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 30
 Rotor Construction
Cylindrical
Difference in coil spacing creates
non-linear variation in flux around
the rotor surface

Non-linear variation in flux

around rotor surface
produces sinusoidal change
in the induced EMF
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 31
 Rotors of Steam Turbine Generators

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 32

 Rotors of Steam Turbine Generators
Traditionally, North American manufacturers
normally did not provide special “damper
windings”
 solid steel rotors offer paths for eddy
currents, which have effects equivalent to
that of amortisseur currents
European manufacturers tended to provide for
additional damping effects and negative-
sequence current capability
 wedges in the slots of field windings
interconnected to form a damper case, or
 separate copper rods provided underneath
the wedges

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 33

 Rotor Construction
Cylindrical
Difference in coil spacing creates
non-linear variation in flux around
the rotor surface

Non-linear variation in flux

around rotor surface
produces sinusoidal change
in the induced EMF
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 34
 Operation as a Synchronous Generator
Two pole cylindrical rotor example

• Field produced on rotor by dc A’

A’
current through slip rings
• Rotor field is turned at 3000rpm B C
B C
by a prime mover
• EMFs induced in stator coils with
frequency of 50Hz N S
• Magnetic Flux distributed around
rotor produces sinusoidal variation C’
B’
C’ B’
in induced EMF
• Phase coils separated by 120o
A
causes delay between phase EMFs
A

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 35

 Operation as a Synchronous Generator
Two pole cylindrical rotor example
• Field produced on rotor by dc
Period = 20ms
current through slip rings
• Rotor field is turned at 3000rpm C A B
by a prime mover
• EMFs induced in stator coils with
frequency of 50Hz
• Magnetic Flux distributed around
rotor produces sinusoidal variation
in induced EMF
• Phase coils separated by 120o
causes delay between phase EMFs
• Delay between phases = 20/3 = 6.667ms 6.667ms

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 36

 Rotors of Hydraulic Units
Normally have damper windings or amortisseurs
 non-magnetic material (usually copper) rods
embedded in pole face
 connected to end rings to form short-circuited
windings
Damper windings may be either continuous or
non-continuous
Space harmonics of the armature mmf contribute
to surface eddy current
 therefore, pole faces are usually laminated

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 37

 Rotors of Hydraulic Units

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 38

mmf wave due to one phase:

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 39

 Balanced Steady State Operation

Stator and rotor mmf wave shapes

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 40
Balanced Steady State Operation
Net mmf wave due to the three phase
stator windings:
 travels at synchronous speed
 appears stationary with respect to the
rotor; and
 has a sinusoidal space distribution

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 41

 Balanced Steady State Operation

Magnitude of stator mmf wave and its

relative angular position with respect to
rotor mmf wave depend on machine
output
 for generator action, rotor field leads
stator field due to forward torque of
prime mover;
 for motor action rotor field lags stator
field due to retarding torque of shaft
load

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 42

 Transient Operation
Stator and rotor fields may:
 vary in magnitude with respect to time
 have different speed
Currents flow not only in the field and stator windings, but also in:
 damper windings (if present); and
 solid rotor surface and slot walls of round rotor machines

Current paths in a round rotor

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 43

Short Circuit Currents of a Synchronous Machine
If a bolted three-phase fault is suddenly applied to a synchronous
machine, the three phase currents are shown in Figure.

Figure: Three-phase short-circuit currents

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 44
In general, fault current has two distinct components:
a) a fundamental frequency component which decays initially very
rapidly (a few cycles) and then relatively slowly (several
seconds) to a steady state value.
b) a dc component which decays exponentially in several cycles.
This is similar to the short circuit current in the case of the simple RL
circuit. However, the amplitude of the ac component is not constant.
 internal voltage, which is a function of rotor flux linkages, is not
constant.
 the initial rapid decay is due to the decay of flux linking the
subtransient circuits (high resistance).
 the slowly decaying part of the ac component is due to the
transient circuit (low resistance).
The dc components have different magnitudes in the three phases.
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 45
 Short Circuit Currents with Stator Transients Neglected
The resulting stator phase currents following a disturbance has the wave
shape shown in Figure.
The short circuit has only the ac component whose amplitude decays.
Regions of subtransient, transient and steady state periods can be readily
identified from the wave shape of phase current.

Fig: Fundamental frequency component of short circuit armature current

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 46
 Calculations
Synchronous speed

fS = supply frequency
required
RPM p = pole pairs

Induced EMF
Volts per
phase
Φ = flux per pole set
by rotor current
z = conductor in series
per phase
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 47
 Operation as a Synchronous Generator
Generated EMF relationship
Open circuit
stator
EMF
The open circuit EMF generated saturation
depends upon
• Rotor speed
• Rotor current
Relationship between open circuit
stator EMF and rotor current is a
straight line until the steel begins to linear
saturate when it becomes non-
linear. Rotor current

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 48

 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
Speed of rotation of synchronous generator
synchronous generators are synchronous, during
their operation
means: electrical frequency is synchronized with
mechanical speed of rotor
Relation between electrical frequency of stator
and mechanical speed of rotor as shown before:
fe=nm p / 120
fe : electrical frequency in Hz
nm: speed of rotor in r/min
p: number of poles

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 49

INTERNAL GENERATED VOLTAGE OF A
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
Magnitude of induced voltage in one phase
EA=√2 π NC φ f
Induced voltage depends on flux φ, frequency or speed
of rotation f, & machine’s construction
Last equation can be rewritten as:
EA=K φ ω
K=NC/√2 (if ω= ωe)
K=NC p/√2 (if ω= ωm)
Note: EA proportional to flux & speed, while flux
depend on current in rotor winding I F, therefore EA is
related to IF & its plot named: magnetization curve, or
O/C characteristic
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 50
INTERNAL GENERATED VOLTAGE OF A
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
Plots of flux vs IF and magnetization curve

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 51

 Internal Rotor Angle
Under no load, Et has only the q-axis
component and δi=0. As the machine
is loaded, δi increases.

Therefore, δi is referred to as the load

angle or internal rotor angle.
It is the angle by which q-axis leads
the phasor Et

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 52

 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
To develop a relation for Vφ as terminal voltage of generator
which is different from internal voltage EA, equivalent circuit
is needed. EA equals to the output voltage V only when
there is no armature current in the machine.
Reasons for Vφ to be different from EA
1- distortion of air-gap magnetic field due to current
flowing in stator, called armature reaction
2- self-inductance of armature coils
3- resistance of armature coils
4- effect of salient-pole rotor shapes (ignored as
machines have cylindrical rotors)
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 53
 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Assuming that the generator is connected to a lagging load,
the load current IA will create a stator magnetic field BS, which
will produce the armature reaction voltage Estat. Therefore, the
phase voltage will be
V  E A  Estat

The net magnetic flux will be

Bnet  BR  BS
Rotor field Stator field

Note that the directions of the net magnetic flux and the phase
voltage are the same.

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 54

 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
The voltage EA is the induced voltage produced in one phase
of a synchronous generator. EA is not usually the voltage that
appears at the terminals of the generator. The only time EA is
the same as the output voltage Vφ of the phase when there is
no armature current flowing in the machine (during no load).
There are many factors that cause the difference between EA
and Vφ including:
 The distortion of the air-gap magnetic field by the current
flowing in the stator, called armature reaction.
 The resistance of the armature coils,
 The self inductance of the armature coils
 The effect of salient pole rotor shape
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 55
Power and torque in synchronous generators
Then the real output power of the synchronous generator can be approximated as

3V E A sin 
Pout 
XS
We observe that electrical losses are assumed to be zero since the resistance is
neglected. Therefore:
Pconv  Pout
Here  is the torque angle of the machine – the angle between V and EA.

The maximum power can be supplied by the generator when  = 900:

3V E A
Pmax 
XS

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 56

Power and torque in synchronous generators
The maximum power specified by (7.24.3) is called the static
stability limit of the generator. Normally, real generators do not
approach this limit: full-load torque angles are usually between
150 and 200.

The induced torque is

 ind  kBR  BS  kBR  Bnet  kBR Bnet sin 
Notice that the torque angle  is also the angle between the
rotor magnetic field BR and the net magnetic field Bnet.

Alternatively, the induced torque is

3V E A sin 
 ind 
m X S
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 57
 Magnetic Saturation
Basic equations of synchronous machines developed so far
ignored effects of saturation
 analysis simple and manageable
 rigorous treat a futile exercise
Practical approach must be based on semi-heuristic reasoning
and judiciously chosen approximations
 consideration to simplicity, data availability, and
accuracy of results
Magnetic circuit data essential to treatment of saturation given
by the open-circuit characteristic (OCC)

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 58

 Open-Circuit Characteristic (OCC)
Under no load rated speed conditions OCC relating to
terminal voltage and field current gives saturation
characteristic of the d-axis

Fig: Open-circuit characteristic showing effects of saturation

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 59
The Synchronous generator operating alone
Generally, when a load on a synchronous generator is added,
the following changes can be observed:
1. For lagging (inductive) loads, the phase (and terminal)
voltage decreases significantly.
2. For unity power factor (purely resistive) loads, the phase
(and terminal) voltage decreases slightly.
3. For leading (capacitive) loads, the phase (and terminal)
voltage rises.
Effects of adding loads can be described by the voltage
regulation:
Vnl  V fl
VR  100%
V fl

Where Vnl is the no-load voltage of the generator and Vfl is its
full-load voltage.
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 60
The Synchronous generator operating alone
A synchronous generator operating at a lagging power factor has a fairly
large positive voltage regulation. A synchronous generator operating at a
unity power factor has a small positive voltage regulation. A synchronous
generator operating at a leading power factor often has a negative voltage
regulation.
Normally, a constant terminal voltage supplied by a generator is desired.
Since the armature reactance cannot be controlled, an obvious approach
to adjust the terminal voltage is by controlling the internal generated
voltage EA = K. This may be done by changing flux in the machine
while varying the value of the field resistance RF, which is summarized:
1. Decreasing the field resistance increases the field current in the
generator.
2. An increase in the field current increases the flux in the machine.
3. An increased flux leads to the increase in the internal generated voltage.
4. An increase in the internal generated voltage increases the terminal
voltage of the generator.
Therefore, the terminal voltage of the generator can be
changed by adjusting the field resistance.
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 61
 General procedure for paralleling
synchronous generators
When connecting the generator G2 to the running system, the
following steps should be taken:
1.Adjust the field current of the oncoming generator to make its terminal
voltage equal to the line voltage of the system (use a voltmeter).
2.Compare the phase sequences of the oncoming generator and the
running system. This can be done by different ways:
1) Connect a small induction motor to the terminals of the oncoming
generator and then to the terminals of the running system. If the
motor rotates in the same direction, the phase sequence is the
same;
2) Connect three light bulbs across the open terminals of the switch.
As the phase changes between the two generators, light bulbs get
brighter (large phase difference) or dimmer (small phase
difference). If all three bulbs get bright and dark together, both
generators have the same phase sequences.
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 62
 If phase sequences are different, two of the conductors
on the oncoming generator must be reversed.
3. The frequency of the oncoming generator is adjusted to be
slightly higher than the system’s frequency.
4. Turn on the switch connecting G2 to the system when phase
angles are equal.
The simplest way to determine the moment when two
generators are in phase is by observing the same three light
bulbs. When all three lights go out, the voltage across them is
zero and, therefore, machines are in phase.
A more accurate way is to use a synchroscope – a meter
measuring the difference in phase angles between two a
phases. However, a synchroscope does not check the phase
sequence since it only measures the phase difference in one
phase.
The whole process is usually automated…
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 63
 INFINITE BUS
Often, when a synchronous generator is added to a power system, that
system is so large that one additional generator does not cause
observable changes to the system. A concept of an infinite bus is used to
characterize such power systems.
An infinite bus is a power system that is so large that its voltage and
frequency do not vary regardless of how much real and reactive power is
drawn from or supplied to it. The power-frequency and reactive power-
voltage characteristics are:

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 64

Reactive Capability Limit of a 400 MVA
Hydrogen Cooled Steam Turbine Generator
Fig. 5.18 shows the reactive capability curves
of a 400 MVA hydrogen cooled steam turbine
driven generator at rated armature voltage
 the effectiveness of cooling and hence the
allowable machine loading depends on
hydrogen pressure
 for each pressure, the segment AB represents
the field heating limit, the segment BC armature
heating limit, and the segment CD the end
region heating limit
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 65
Reactive Capability Limit of a 400 MVA
Hydrogen Cooled Steam Turbine Generator

Fig. 5.18: Reactive capability curves of a hydrogen cooled generator at rated voltage
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 66
Effect of Changes in Terminal Voltage Et

Fig: Effect of reducing the armature voltage on the generator capability curve

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 67

Reactive Capability Limits of Synchronous Machines
In voltage stability and long-term stability studies, it is important
to consider the reactive capability limits of synchronous
machines

Synchronous generators are rated in terms of maximum MVA

output at a specified voltage and power factor which can be
carried continuously without overheating

The active power output is limited by the prime mover capability

The continuous reactive power output capability is limited by

three considerations
 armature current limit
 field current limit
 end region heating limit

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 68

 Armature Current Limit
Armature current results in power loss, and the resulting heat imposes a limit
on the output. The per unit complex output power is
~ ~
S  P  jQ  E I  E I cos   j sin  
*
t t t t
where Φ is the power factor angle.
In a P-Q plane the armature current limit, as shown in Fig., it appears as a
circle with centre at the origin and radius equal to the MVA rating.

Fig: Armature current heating limit

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 69
 Field Current Limit
Because of the heating resulting from RfdI2fd power loss, the
field current imposes the second limit.
The phasor diagram relating Et, It and Eq (with Ra neglected) is
shown in Fig. 5.13.
Equating the components along and perpendicular to the phasor.
Therefore, the relationship between P and Q for a given field
current is a circle centered at on the Q-axis and with as the
radius. The effect of the maximum field current on the
capability of the machine is shown in Fig. 5.14.
In any balanced design, the thermal limits for the field and
armature intersect at a point (A) which represents the machine
name-plate MVA and power factor rating.

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 70

 Field Current Limit

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 71

 Field Current Limit

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 72

 End Region Heating Limit
The localized heating in the end region of the armature affects the capability
of the machine in the underexcited condition.
The end-turn leakage flux, as shown in Fig. 5.15, enters and leaves in a
direction perpendicular (axial) to the stator lamination. This causes eddy
currents in the laminations resulting in localized heating in the end region.
The high field currents corresponding to the overexcited condition keep the
retaining ring saturated, so that end leakage flux is small. However, in the
underexcited region the field current is low and the retaining ring is not
saturated; this permits an increase in armature end leakage flux.
Also, in the underexcited condition, the flux produced by the armature
current adds to the flux produced by the field current. Therefore, the end-
turn flux enhances the axial flux in the end region and the resulting heating
effect may severely limit the generator output, particularly in the case of a
round rotor machine.
Fig. 5.16 shows the locus of end region heating limit on a P-Q plane.
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 73
 End Region Heating Limit

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 74

 End Region Heating Limit

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 75

 Synchronous machine ratings
The speed and power that can be obtained from a
synchronous motor or generator are limited. These
limited values are called ratings of the machine. The
purpose of ratings is to protect the machine from
damage. Typical ratings of synchronous machines
are voltage, speed, apparent power (kVA), power
factor, field current and service factor.

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 76

 Synchronous machine ratings
A generator’s voltage depends on the flux, the rotational speed, and
the mechanical construction of the machine. For a given design and
speed, the higher the desired voltage, the higher the flux should be.
However, the flux is limited by the field current.
The rated voltage is also limited by the windings insulation
breakdown limit, which should not be approached closely.

Is it possible to operate a synchronous machine at a frequency

other than the machine is rated for? For instance, can a 60 Hz
generator operate at 50 Hz?
The change in frequency would change the speed. Since EA = K,
the maximum allowed armature voltage changes when frequency
changes.
Specifically, if a 60 Hz generator will be operating at 50 Hz, its
operating voltage must be derated to 50/60 or 83.3 %.
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 77
 Synchronous machine ratings
1. Voltage, Speed, and Frequency
The rated frequency of a synchronous machine
depends on the power system to which it is
connected. The commonly used frequencies are 50
Hz (Europe, Asia), 60 Hz (Americas), and 400 Hz
(special applications: aircraft, spacecraft, etc.). Once
the operation frequency is determined, only one
rotational speed in possible for the given number of
poles:
120 f e
nm 
P
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 78
 Synchronous machine ratings
2. Apparent power and Power factor
Two factors limiting the power of electric machines are
1)Mechanical torque on its shaft (usually, shaft can handle much more
torque)
2)Heating of the machine’s winding
The practical steady-state limits are set by heating in the windings.
The maximum acceptable armature current sets the apparent power rating for a
generator:

S  3V I A
If the rated voltage is known, the maximum accepted armature current determines
the apparent power rating of the generator:

S  3V ,rated I A,max  3VL ,rated I L ,max

The power factor of the armature current is irrelevant for heating the
armature windings.

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 79

 Synchronous machine ratings
If the armature voltage exceeds its maximum allowed
value, the windings could be damaged. The angle of
IA that requires maximum possible EA specifies the
rated power factor of the generator. It is possible to
operate the generator at a lower (more lagging) PF
than the rated value, but only by decreasing the
apparent power supplied by the generator.

Synchronous motors are usually rated in terms of

real output power and the lowest PF at full-load
conditions.

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 80

 Synchronous machine ratings
3. Short-time operation and service factor
A typical synchronous machine is often able to supply up to
300% of its rated power for a while (until its windings burn up).
This ability to supply power above the rated values is used to
supply momentary power surges during motor starts.

It is also possible to use synchronous machine at powers

exceeding the rated values for longer periods of time, as long
as windings do not have time to hit up too much before the
excess load is removed. For instance, a generator that could
supply 1 MW indefinitely, would be able to supply 1.5 MW for
1 minute without serious harm and for longer periods at lower
power levels.

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 81

 service factor
The overheating is a serious problem and
synchronous machines should not be overheated
unless absolutely necessary. However, power
requirements of the machine not always known
exactly prior its installation. Because of this,
general-purpose machines usually have their
service factor defined as the ratio of the actual
maximum power of the machine to the rating on
its plate.
For instance, a machine with a service factor of
1.15 can actually be operated at 115% of the
rated load indefinitely without harm.
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 82
 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
Short-circuit Ratio
Another parameter used to describe synchronous generators is the
short-circuit ratio (SCR). The SCR of a generator defined as the
ratio of the field current required for the rated voltage at open circuit
to the field current required for the rated armature current at short
circuit. SCR is just the reciprocal of the per unit value of the
saturated synchronous reactance calculated by
Ef or Vt (V) Air-gap line Isc (A)
OC I f _ Vrated
Vrated C SC
SCR 
C I f _ Iscrated
Isc,rated

1

If_V If_Isc
If (A) X s _ sat in p .u .
rated rated

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 83

 Synchronous motors
The field current IF of the motor produces a steady-state rotor
magnetic field BR. A 3-phase set of voltages applied to the
stator produces a 3-phase current flow in the windings.

A 3-phase set of currents in an armature winding produces a

uniform rotating magnetic field Bs.

Two magnetic fields are present in the machine, and the rotor
field tends to align with the stator magnetic field. Since the
stator magnetic field is rotating, the rotor magnetic field will try
to catch up pulling the rotor.

The larger the angle between two magnetic fields (up to a

certain maximum), the greater the torque on the rotor of the
machine.
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 84
 Operation as a Synchronous Motor
Two pole cylindrical rotor example
• Stator field rotates at 3000rpm NS
from 50Hz supply A’

• Rotor field must be locked on to

stator field speed NR
B
• Motor runs a synchronous speed
whatever the mechanical load
provided rotor field is strong
enough N S
NR = N S
• This is impossible within an C’
B’
induction motor as there wound be
no induced currents to cause
rotation A

• This motor runs at synchronous

speed hence the name –
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 85
 Operation as a Synchronous Motor

Rotor Speed
(NR)

NS

Load Torque

10/06/23 86
PROF. V. G. PATEL
 Operation as a Synchronous Motor
The V-curve

The rotor current can be

adjusted to vary the
power factor of the stator

Unity power factor is

achieved when stator
current is at its minimum

This machine can be

used to correct power
factor of induction motors
when connected in
parallel

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 87

 Operation as a Synchronous Motor

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 88

Synchronous motor equivalent circuit
A synchronous motor has the same equivalent circuit
as synchronous generator, except that the direction of
power flow (and the direction of IA) is reversed.

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 89

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR STARTING

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 90

 Synchronous Motor Starting
Simplified diagram of salient 2 pole machine
Not a way normal
machines work,
-however, illustrate reason
for its application

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 91

Synchronous Motor Starting
Assume initially main rotor field winding is
disconnected & that a 3 phase set of voltages applied
to stator
assume when power is first applied at t=0, B S is
vertical as shown, & as BS sweeps along in counter-
clockwise direction, it induces a voltage in bars of
amortisseur winding :
eind=(v x B) . l
v=velocity of bar relative to B
B=magnetic flux density vector
l=length of conductor magnetic field
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 92
 Synchronous Motor Starting
In Real Machines, field windings not open-circuited during
starting procedure.
If field windings were O.C. then very high voltages would be
produced during starting.
If field winding be short circuited, during starting no dangerous
voltage developed, and induced field current contribute extra
torque to motor.
Starting procedure for machines with amortisseur winding:
1- disconnect field windings from DC power source and short
them.
2- apply a 3 phase voltage to stator winding, let rotor accelerate
up to near-syn. Speed, motor should have no load to get close to
nsyn.
3- connect dc field circuit to its power source, after this motor get
to syn. Speed and loads then may be added to shaft.
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 93
 Synchronous Motor Starting
Effects of Amortisseur Windings on Motor Stability
There is another advantage when there is an armortisseur
winding, i.e. increase machine stability
Stator magnetic field rotates at a constant speed nsyn which
varies only when system frequency varies
If rotor turns at nsyn amortisseur winding have no induced
voltage
If rotor turn slower than nsyn there will be relative motion
between rotor & BS & a voltage will be induced, consequently
current pass and magnetic field produced that develop a torque
which tend to speed machine up again
On the other hand if rotor turn faster than BS a torque develop
to slow rotor down
These windings dampen out load or other transients on
machine and this the reason that this winding named Damping
Winding
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 94
Synchronous Motor Starting
1 – Starting by Reducing Electrical
Frequency
If stator B rotate at low enough speed, there
will be no problem for rotor to accelerate &
will lock in with stator.
Speed of BS then can be increased gradually
to normal 50 Hz.
Shortcoming: how to provide a variable
electrical frequency source, this needs a
dedicated generator
This requirement is obviously impractical
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 95
Synchronous Motor Starting
Today, rectifier-inverter & cycloconverter can be used to
convert a constant frequency to any desired output
frequency
With modern solid-state variable frequency drive
packages, it is perfectly possible to continuously control
electrical frequency applied to motor from a fraction of
Hz up to and above rated frequency
If such a variable-frequency drive unit included in
motor-control circuit to achieve speed control, then
starting syn. motor is very easy
When syn. Motor operated at a speed lower than rated
speed, its internal generated voltage EA=Kφω will be
smaller than normal and If EA reduced, voltage applied
to motor must reduced to keep stator current at safe
levels
Voltage in any variable-frequency drive (or variable-
frequency starter ckt) must vary roughly linearly with
applied frequency
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 96
Synchronous Motor Starting
2- Starting With an External Prime Mover
Attaching an external motor to it to bring syn.
Machine up to full speed
Then syn. Machine be paralleled with its power
system as a generator
Now starting motor can be detached from
machine shaft, then its slow down
BR fall behind Bnet & machine change its mode
to be motor
Once paralleling completed syn. Motor can be
loaded down in an ordinary fashion
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 97
Synchronous Motor Starting
Since starting motor should overcome inertia of
syn. machine without a load & starting motor
can have much smaller rating.
since most syn. motors have brushless
excitation systems mounted on their shaft, often
these exciters can be used as starting motors.
For many medium-size to large syn. motors, an
external starting motor or starting by using
exciter may be the only possible solution,
because the connected power system source
may not be able to feed the required starting
current for amortisseur winding.
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 98
Synchronous Motor Starting
3- Starting by Using Amortisseur Windings
most popular method is to employ amortisseur
or damper winding.
Armortisseur windings are special bars laid into
notches carved in face of a syn. motor’s rotor &
then shorted out on each end by a large
shorting ring.
pole face shown
To understand what a set of amortisseur
windings does in a syn. motor, examine salient
2 pole rotor shown.

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 99

 Steady-state operation of motor:
Torque-speed curve
Usually, synchronous motors are connected to large
power systems (infinite bus); therefore, their terminal
voltage and system frequency are constant
regardless the motor load. Since the motor speed is
locked to the electrical frequency, the speed should
be constant regardless the load.
The steady-state speed of the motor is constant from
no-load to the maximum torque that motor can supply
(pullout torque). Therefore, the speed regulation of
synchronous motor is 0%.

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 100

 Starting Torque
It cannot be started from a standstill by applying ac to the
stator. When ac is applied to the stator a high speed RMF
appears around the stator. This RMF rushes past the rotor
poles so quickly that the rotor is unable to get started. It is
attracted first in one direction and then in the other and
hence no starting torque.

Improvement of starting torque

It is started by using a squirrel cage within a rotor construction
and therefore starts as an induction motor.
At synchronous speed the squirrel cage has no part to play.

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 101

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE SUMMARY
Motors and Generators
1- Syn. Gen.: EA lies ahead of Vφ while for motor:
EA lies behind Vφ
2- machine supplying Q have EA cosδ > Vφ (regardless of
being motor or generator) and machine consuming reactive
power Q has
EA cosδ < Vφ
The synchronous motor:
1.requires to be started by an external prime mover.
2.Runs only at synchronous speed, this is an advantage
where continuous speed is required but a disadvantage
where a variable speed is required.
3.Can be used to adjust the power factor of a system at the
same time it is driving a mechanical load.

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 102

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE SUMMARY
Synchronous motors commonly used for low speed, high
power loads
When connected to power system, frequency and terminal
voltage of syn. motor is fixed
nm= nsync=120 fe/p
Pmax=3 Vφ EA / XS
this is maximum power of machine and if exceeded, motor
slip poles.
in syn. Gen., one major difference is that a large EA
gives a leading PF, instead of lagging PF.

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 103

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL
?
104
 OPEN FORUM
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 105
 Engineer ki jai ho !! Pakka engineer:
External examiner to an engineering student:
Why does a capacitor blocks DC, but allows AC to pass through?
Student: Sir, it is really very simple, if we give a nice look to a symbol of a
capacitor;

DC comes straight like this, so capacitor stops it.

But AC goes UP-DOWN UP-DOWN like this and jump over the capacitor !!

External Examiner: After 30 years of experience …..

today I understood the concept of capacitor !!!!!!!!!
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 106
You are having all types of testing instruments and
equipments including variable frequency generator
and micro ohm meter, by how many trials, you can
find out what is there in the box?
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 107
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 108
10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 109
 THANQ

10/06/23 PROF. V. G. PATEL 110